Showing posts with label Technology. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Technology. Show all posts

Friday, January 26, 2024

Merchandise Mart in Chicago, History and Little Known Facts.

The Merchandise Mart, 222 Merchandise Mart Plaza, a colossal monolith on the Chicago River, boasts a rich history as grand as scale and as vibrant as the city itself. From its Art Deco beginnings to its modern-day transformation as a tech hub, I delve into the whole story of this iconic Chicago landmark:

In the roaring 1920s, Chicago retail titan Marshall Field & Company envisioned a revolutionary concept: a single, centralized marketplace for wholesale goods. Enter James Simpson, the company's visionary President, who commissioned the construction of the 4.2 million square feet Merchandise Mart. 
The Merchandise Mart is under construction, seen from the Lake Street Bridge in 1929. —Chicago Tribune historical photo.


Transforming the site of the historic Wells Street Station site, construction began in 1928; by 1930, the behemoth stood tall, dwarfing its surroundings. At the time, the Mart was the largest building in the world by floor space, a title it held for over a decade. Its imposing Art Deco facade, adorned with geometric patterns and stylized eagles, reflected the era's optimism and grandeur.
The view of the new Merchandise Mart was still under construction in 1929.
—Chicago Tribune historical photo
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The Mart, designed by Alfred P. Shaw of Graham, Anderson, Probst & White, embraced the Art Deco aesthetic. Its sleek lines, geometric forms, and limestone-terracotta cladding exuded modernity and ambition. 

The Mart wasn't just a building; it was a self-contained city. It housed Field's wholesale showrooms, manufacturing facilities, and a plethora of amenities for tenants and visitors alike. Restaurants, banks, post offices, and even a telegraph office buzzed with activity, making the Mart a bustling hub of commerce.
An aerial view of the Merchandise Mart in 1930.
Chicago Tribune historical photo.



The Mart's official opening in 1930 was a momentous occasion. It housed Field's wholesale showrooms, manufacturing facilities, restaurants, a bank, a post office, a telegraph office and a plethora of amenities for tenants and visitors alike. It was a self-contained city within a city. However, the Great Depression soon cast a shadow, making it initially challenging to fill the vast space.

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The Merchandise Mart was once the largest building in the world by floor space, a title it held until the Pentagon's construction in 1943.

The Great Depression threw a wrench in the Mart's initial success. The wholesale market dwindled, forcing the Mart to diversify. Over the years, it transitioned from a purely wholesale center to a multi-purpose complex, welcoming office tenants and diverse businesses.

It housed manufacturing facilities for war materials during World War II (1939-1945). The legendary Kennedy family acquired the Merchandise Mart in 1945, ushering in a new ownership era. Under their guidance, the Mart continued to evolve, adapting to the changing times. 
The Merchandise Mart in 1949.
In the 1950s, it found new life as a center for design and architecture.

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The building's rooftop was used as a landing pad for helicopters during the early days of air travel by helicopter. In 1953, New York Airways became the first scheduled passenger helicopter air carrier in the United States. In the 1950s and 1960s, "helicopter airlines" operated in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco, carrying people to and from the airport at high fares. 
Merry Christmas is written in lights on the Merchandise Mart on November 25, 1964. —Chicago Tribune historical photo.






INTERESTING MERCHANDISE MART FACTS:
Federal, State, and Local Government Offices:
During World War II, the Merchandise Mart saw declining tenant interest in its original function. To fill vacancy, the building was converted to house various federal government offices, due to its vast space and central location. This lasted until the 1950s.

The Mart again welcomed a small number of state and local government offices as tenants in 1990.

The CTA's presence in the Merchandise Mart:
The CTA moved its headquarters into the Merchandise Mart in 1942, occupying several floors. The CTA's offices in the Merchandise Mart were home to a variety of departments, including administration, planning, and operations. The CTA relocated its headquarters to a new building at 567 West Lake Street, Chicago, as part of a larger effort to improve its efficiency and customer service.

The CTA sold its remaining office space in the Merchandise Mart in 2006.
The CTA Merchandise Mart 'L' Station.


The Merchandise Mart is still a major CTA transportation hub, with an 'L' station on the Red Line (the North-South line), the Brown Line (the Ravenswood line), and the Purple Line (the Evanston Express line) on weekdays during rush hour.
1970 Merchandise Mart CTA Station. The'L' sign says "Evanston - Wilmette."


The CTA buses that stop at the Merchandise Mart are:
Washington & State (Routes 126, 152, 156).
Michigan & Randolph (Routes 62, 128, 151, 155, 157).
Orleans & Merchandise Mart (Routes 60, 65).

The RTA buses that stop at the Merchandise Mart are:
Merchandise Mart (Routes 27, 36).



The iconic "heads" (busts) on the roof of the Merchandise Mart building actually had two distinct chapters in the building's history. While neither group currently graces the building's rooftop today, their stories deserve to be told:

Chapter 1: The Native American Chiefs (1930-1961)
A Controversial Adornment: When the Merchandise Mart opened in 1930, its rooftop boasted 56 sculpted heads of Native American chiefs, designed by John Awre. 

Uncertain Names: Not all the chiefs had identified names. Some were assigned names based on tribal affiliations or geographical regions, while others remained anonymous. The identification process was complex and controversial, so some names may be inaccurate or disputed.

Stereotypical Representation: It's important to remember that the sculptures reflected the era's romanticized and inaccurate portrayals of Native American cultures. They did not represent individual historical figures and perpetuated harmful stereotypes.




  1. Apache: "ah-PAH-chee," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  2. Arapaho: "A-ra-pa-ho," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  3. Arikara: "uh-rih-kuh-rah," An Indigenous Tribe.
  4. Assiniboine: "uh-sin-uh-boin," An Indigenous Tribe.
  5. Blackfoot: "Black-foo-t," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  6. Caddo: "KAH-doh," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  7. Cayuga: "kay-YOO-ga," An Indigenous Tribe
  8. Cheyenne: "shy-AN," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  9. Cherokee: "chEH-ruh-kEE," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  10. Chickasaw: "CHIK-ə-saw," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  11. Chinook: "Chok-NOOK," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  12. Chippewa: "chi-puh-waa," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  13. Choctaw: "Chauk taw," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  14. Comanche: "kuh-MAN-chee," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  15. Cree: Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  16. Crow: Crow tribe's name is Apsáalooke "ahp-SAH-loo-keh," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  17. Delaware: A Tribe - called initially the Lenape tribe, aka Munsee and Unami bands.
  18. Flathead: A Chief - "Ahl-shah-taa-pee," named by Europeans for Chief (Flat Head).
  19. Gros Ventre: "Groh Vahn-truh," ("big belly," French) Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  20. Haida: "Hay Da," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  21. Hopi: "HOH-pee," An Indigenous Tribe.
  22. Huron: "Hoo-RON," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  23. Iroquois: "ear-ro-kwa" (French), Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  24. Kalapuya: "Cal-uh-poo-yuh," An Indigenous Tribe.
  25. Kansas: "KAN-zəs," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  26. Kiowa: "Hy-oh-wa," An Indigenous Tribe.
  27. Kootenay: "KOOT-nee," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  28. Lenape: "lun-NAH-pay," An Indigenous Tribe - aka Delaware Tribe
  29. Lummi: "LUH-mee," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  30. Mandan: "mah-N'-DAN," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  31. Menominee: "Meh-NOH-meh-nee," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  32. Miami: Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  33. Micmac: "Meeg-em-ach," An Indigenous Tribe.
  34. Modoc: "MO-dock," An Indigenous Tribe.
  35. Mohawk: "Mo-hawk," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  36. Navajo: "na-va-ho," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  37. Nez Perce: "Nay Pers-say," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.[1]
  38. Nuutka: "Nuu-chah-nulth," aka Nootka, An Indigenous Tribe. 
  39. Ojibwe: "Oh-JIB-way," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  40. Osage: "OH-sage," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs. 
  41. Ottawa: "Ah-dah-wa," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  42. Papago: "pap-uh-goh," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  43. Pawnee: "PAWN-ee" Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  44. Penobscot: "peh-NOB-skot," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  45. Pomo: "po-MOH," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  46. Ponca: "Pohn-kuh," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  47. Potawatomi: "Boh-da-wah-dmi," (Tribal Pronunciation), An Indigenous Tribe.
  48. Pueblo: a group of tribes (i.e., The Illinois), Indigenous Tribes & Chiefs.
  49. Quapaw: An Indigenous Tribe.
  50. Sauk (Sac) & Meskwaki (Fox): "Mesk-wa-ki," Indigenous Tribes.
  51. Salish: "Slah-LEESH," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  52. Seminole: "Sem-uh-NO-le," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  53. Seneca: "Sen-eh-kuh," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
  54. Shoshone: "shoh-SHO-nee," An Indigenous Tribe.
  55. Sioux: "soo," (confederation of 7 nations; i.e., The Illinois), Indigenous Tribes & Chiefs.
  56. Ute: "Yoo-tey," Indigenous Tribe & Chiefs.
[1] The name "Nez Perce" ("pierced nose") is actually a misnomer: It comes from French fur traders who mistakenly applied it to the tribe based on a misunderstanding of their cultural practice of nose ornaments. The tribe prefers to be called Nimiipuu, which means "The People."

This reflected a popular Art Deco motif of the time but also carried problematic connotations of cultural appropriation and romanticized stereotypes. 

Shifting Tides: As social awareness grew in the mid-20th century, the depictions of the chiefs faced increasing criticism for their insensitivity. By 1961, the decision was made to remove them from the building.

What Happened to the "Indian Heads?" In 1961, the heads were deemed outdated and removed from the roof. 

Most were sadly destroyed, but a few found their way to different destinations:
  • Two busts were found in the Campia family's home in Lake Forest and auctioned off in 2014.
  • The remaining heads are believed to be lost or destroyed.
As of January 26, 2024, the exact location of the remaining heads is unknown.

The two auctioned busts might be in private collections, but their specific ownership is not publicly available.

So, while most of the Indian "heads" are unfortunately lost to history, a small piece of their legacy survives in private hands. 

Chapter 2: The Merchandise Mart Hall of Fame
Standing tall as guardians of American commerce, eight colossal bronze busts grace the entrance of The Merchandise Mart, the world's largest wholesale buying center in Chicago. These larger-than-life figures immortalize some of the most influential figures in American retail history, their names and companies woven into the very fabric of consumer culture.


Commissioned in 1953 by Joseph Patrick Kennedy Sr., the 44th U.S. Ambassador to the United Kingdom, these four-times-life-size busts stand as a testament to the vision and dedication of the men who shaped the American retail landscape. Each bust, meticulously crafted in bronze, captures the essence of its subject, with their determined gazes fixed on the future of commerce.

From Frank Winfield Woolworth's 5 & Dime stores to Marshall Field's luxurious emporiums, these pioneers revolutionized the way Americans shopped. Their innovative ideas and unwavering commitment to quality forever changed the face of retail, leaving an enduring legacy that inspires generations of entrepreneurs.
Marshall Field
  1. Frank Winfield Woolworth: The founder of F.W. Woolworth Company.
  2. Marshall Field: The founder of Marshall Field and Company.
  3. Aaron Montgomery Ward: The founder of Montgomery Ward & Company.
  4. Julius Rosenwald: Was a Sears, Roebuck and Company President.
  5. Robert Elkington Wood: Was a Sears, Roebuck and Company President.
  6. John Wanamaker: The father of modern advertising.
  7. Edward Albert Filene: Preseident of William Feline & Sons. Filene's department stores.
  8. George Huntington Hartford: The founded The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co. (A&P)
Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Thursday, January 4, 2024

The "Beep Line" from WLS (890 AM) radio, Chicago, explained.

The "Beep Line" on Chicago's WLS AM radio wasn't explicitly started by any one disc jockey. It was a phenomenon that emerged organically from the technological limitations of the telephone system at the time. However, Richard "Dick" Orlando Biondi's popularity and engagement with his young listeners contributed significantly to its rise and popularity. Chicago teens whispered secrets between the beep (on hold) tones.

Technical glitch: Beep lines arose from busy signals. When two or more callers reached the same busy number, they could hear each other over the "beep" tone, creating an impromptu conference (party line) call. This phenomenon existed before Biondi on WLS (890 AM) but wasn't widely known.
Richard "Dick" Orlando Biondi
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Hired in 1960, Biondi left WLS over a dispute involving the number of commercials on his radio show in 1963. Rumors and urban legends still persist that Biondi told an obscene joke on the air, which resulted in his being fired. Biondi returned to Chicago on WCFL (1000 AM) in 1967. In 1972, after a short time at WMAQ (AM), he left Chicago once again.

Biondi's teen appeal: In the early 1960s, Biondi was WLS's most popular DJ, adored by Chicago teenagers. He frequently hosted interactive segments, inviting listeners nationwide to call collect, request songs, chat, and participate in contests.

Word-of-mouth: Teens discovered that calling popular numbers, especially during Biondi's show, sometimes landed them on a "beep line" with other callers. This created a thrill and fostered a sense of community.

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As the years passed, people confessed to setting up a date with a stranger via the Beep Line.

Biondi's acknowledgment: Though he didn't actively promote beep lines, Biondi occasionally acknowledged them on air, further fueling their popularity. This unintentional endorsement cemented their association with WLS and Biondi's show.

So, while Dick Biondi wasn't the "inventor" of the beep line, his immense popularity and the interactive nature of his show undoubtedly amplified the phenomenon and made WLS the epicenter of beep line activity in Chicago during the early 1960s.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Tuesday, November 28, 2023

The Chicago Home Insurance Building: The Pioneer of Skyscraper Architecture in 1885.

Standing tall and proud amidst the bustling streets of Chicago, the Home Insurance Building etched its name in the annals of architectural history as the world's first true skyscraper.

Designed by the visionary architect William Le Baron Jenney, this impressive 138-foot-tall, 10-story structure revolutionized how buildings were conceived and constructed, paving the way for modern skyscrapers that dominate cities worldwide. Construction of the Home Insurance Building began in 1884 at the Northeast corner of LaSalle and Adams Streets and was completed in 1885.

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Two additional stories were added to the Chicago Home Insurance Building in 1890. This increased the building to 12 stories and its height to 180 feet.

CONCEPTION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
In the late 19th century, Chicago was booming, its population swelling and its businesses expanding. The demand for office space was surging, and traditional masonry construction methods were proving inadequate to meet the growing needs. 
During Construction
The Home Insurance Building's origins can be traced back to the late 1870s when the Home Insurance Company of New York sought to establish a branch office in Chicago. The company's management envisioned a grand and imposing structure reflecting its prominence in the insurance industry. In 1884, they approached Jenney, a respected architect known for his innovative designs and use of fireproof construction. Jenney faced the challenge of creating a tall, fire-resistant building that could withstand Chicago's harsh weather conditions.

PIONEERING CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
Interior Views
Note the full-size windows.
Jenney's solution was a 10-story, 138-foot-tall building with a frame made of wrought and cast iron, along with Bessemer rolled steel beams (steel), a revolutionary concept at the time. Before this, buildings were primarily constructed using masonry walls, limiting their height and fire resistance. The steel frame provided the strength and support needed to build taller buildings, allowing for thinner walls and larger windows hung on the steel frame. It could withstand the weight of its walls and floors. The building also featured fireproofing measures, including fireproof terra cotta cladding and hollow tiles filled with concrete.

This revolutionary design enabled the building to reach an unprecedented height of 138 feet and set a precedent for future skyscrapers.

IMPACT AND LEGACY
The Home Insurance Building was a testament to Jenney's architectural ingenuity and marked a turning point in skyscraper design. Its innovative use of a steel skeleton frame and other features established the foundation for modern skyscrapers, paving the way for taller, safer, and more efficient buildings.
The "I WILL" Postcard Series № 186C: Home Insurance Building, Chicago. From the private collection of Dr. Neil Gale. Chicago Postcard Museum.
The building's impact was immediate and far-reaching. It inspired a wave of skyscraper construction in Chicago and other cities, transforming urban landscapes and ushering in a new era of vertical architecture.

The building's impact extended beyond its structural innovations, influencing the aesthetic of skyscrapers. Its exterior, clad in terracotta panels, reflected a transition away from the heavy ornamentation of Victorian architecture towards a more streamlined and modern aesthetic.

While the Home Insurance Building was demolished in 1931 to make way for the Field Building, another skyscraper, its impact on architecture and urban development remains profound. It stands as a symbol of innovation and ingenuity, forever etched in the history of skyscrapers and the evolution of modern cities.
Architect and Engineer William LeBaron Jenney was born on September 25, 1832. He died in Los Angeles, California, on June 14, 1907, at the age of 74.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Saturday, August 19, 2023

Comparative Cost of Macadamizing (Explained) and Planking the Streets of Chicago.

Since the experiment of macadamizing [1] (aka McAdamize) the streets of our city has been instituted, a great deal of discussion has been had as to the comparative cost and cheapness of this kind of roadbed over the planking in such general use, and articles, pro and con, upon this subject, have found their way into the newspapers.

Some time ago, the City Council ordered Harrison Street to be macadamizing. A number of property holders on that street, whose property was assessed to pay for the improvement, petitioned the Council to have the street planked instead, for the reason, as they alleged, that the latter road bed is cheaper than the former and, the street not being a prominent thoroughfare, quite as useful. The petition was referred to Mr. N.S. Bonton, City Superintendent, with instructions to report to the Council the comparative cost of both planking and macadamizing. 
South Water Street, Chicago, in the 1860s


The cost comparison is between planking one mile of the street, with the necessary filling to raise the street to an equal height with fourteen inches of macadamizing.

The annexed estimates show the cost for planking twelve, sixteen and twenty-four feet wide, with three-inch oak plank; also, the cost of macadamizing one mile the same width.

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May 12, 1857, Chicago Tribune:  Canal Street was ordered to be Macadamized from Van Buren Street to Old (18th) Street.



Chicago, August 22, 1857.
To plank one mile of street twenty-four feet wide with a three-inch oak plank, spiked with a wrought iron spike to seven, four by six inch, oak stringers, adding sufficient earth to fill up equal to eleven inches and twenty-eight feet in width:
    • Totaled $16,885 ($593,300 today).
For planking one mile of street sixteen feet wide with a three-inch oak plank, spiked with a wrought iron spike to five oak stringers, four by six inches, adding sufficient earth to fill up to eleven inches high and twenty feet wide:
    • Totaled $11,703 ($411,200 today).
For planking one mile of street twelve feet wide with a three-inch oak plank, spiked with a wrought iron spike to four oak stringers, four by six inches, adding sufficient earth to fill up to eleven inches high and sixteen feet wide:
    • Totaled $9,201 ($323,300 today)
Estimate of cost of macadamizing one mile of the street, one course of stone broken to four-inch maximum diameter, eight inches deep, and covered with one course of stone, broken to two and one-quarter inches maximum diameter, six inches deep, also to grade the road-bed so as to make a suitable face for the stone:
    • Twenty-Four Feet Wide; $15,644 ($549,681 today)
    • Sixteen Feet Wide; $10,516 ($369,500 today)
    • Twelve Feet Wide; $8,008 ($281,375 today)
We are informed by the Superintendent that the estimates for macadamizing are made at what it would cost the city to do the work-by-day labor but that it is probable the same work could be contracted for at nearly a thousand dollars less per mile. 

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September 8, 1859, Chicago Tribune:  A request to the Horse Railway Company to make sure that their road is well [water] sprinkled, particularly on the Macadamized part where the dust is already insufferable.

These estimates, it must be remembered in forming an opinion as to the best mode of making a roadbed, are for the first cost of the work and have no reference to the expense of keeping it in good order, which is quite as important a consideration as the other. It is to be regretted that the report of the Superintendent does not contain at least some approximate estimates upon this point. It would be scarcely satisfactory to those who we pay for street improvements to tell them that this or that method is the cheapest at the outset than any other when in fact, at the expiration of five to ten years, it may be found the most expensive, owing to the cost of repairs necessary to keep the street in passable condition. The public will be far more capable of forming a correct judgment as to the comparative value of the two kinds of improvement when it is furnished with at least an approximate estimate of the cost of keeping each one in good repair. In the absence of any such estimates, the controversy between the advocates of planking and macadamizing will probably be continued with unabated pertinacity.

There are some objections to macadamizing which are entitled to the serious consideration of our readers, the most important of which, so far as comfort and health are concerned, is dust. All experience shows that macadamized roads, by the time they are worn down to a comfortable smoothness, are covered with fine dust, which is not only excessively disagreeable but most injurious to eyes and lungs. This dust is constantly accumulating by attrition until the whole material of which the road is composed is either ground up or sunk beneath the surface of the earth. Macadamize Harrison or any other street, and it will share the fate of all other macadamized roads; either the atmosphere will be constantly filled with minute particles of pulverized stone, or the street, from being well watered, covered with stone paste, if it may be so called, from one to six inches deep. How much consideration may be given to this drawback is somewhat uncertain when it is remembered that, to a far greater extent than it should, the question of immediate cheapness controls the public decision as to the method to be chosen. The Superintendent has decided that macadamizing is the least expensive at the start, and with many persons, this is quite sufficient to determine the matter.

A word as to the much abused planking. Some of our citizens may recollect the planking put down many years ago on Lake Street, between State and Dearborn Streets. If we remember rightly, the planks were four inches thick, having been made by ripping eight-inch square timber. After it had been in place some seven years, it was taken up to lay a gas pipe for some analogous purpose. A friend who was passing as the time assures us that he examined the planks, then temporarily removed them, saw them sawed across and that they were not at all decayed. The only loss they appeared to have sustained was from the mechanical attrition of the wheels and horses' feet which had passed over them, and that was inconsiderable. The material seemed to be perfectly good for three more years of service.

It deserved to be carefully considered whether substantial planking of this character will not require fewer repairs than macadamizing, especially if laid upon a well-drained roadbed of sand or gravel.  We think such a planking, thoroughly laid down, would be good for ten years at least. A great deal of the planking heretofore done has been so imperfectly executed that is has, we think, produced a wrong impression as to the usefulness and durability of that mode of covering streets.

The estimates of the Superintendent are satisfactory so far as they go. Still, we trust that that officer, or some other person possessing the necessary data, will furnish the public with the cost per mile of the kind of planking we have indicated, and also a comparative estimate of the durability, cost of repairs, etc., of such planking and macadamizing. The subject is one of great importance, and now, at the very onset, it is best that the public should be supplied with all possible information relative to this substitution of macadamizing for planking the street of minor importance, for they take it for granted that the principal thoroughfares will be covered with much better material than either of them.


Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.



[1] What is a "Macadamized" Street?
A macadamized street is a road that is made of crushed stone that is compacted into layers. The name comes from the Scottish engineer John Loudon McAdam, who invented the process in the early 19th century.

Macadamized roads are characterized by their durability and ability to withstand heavy traffic. They are also relatively inexpensive to construct and maintain.

The basic principle of macadamization is to use crushed stone of different sizes to create a roadbed that is both strong and porous. The largest stones are placed at the bottom, followed by smaller stones and then a layer of fine gravel. The stones are compacted using rollers or tamping machines, which helps to create a smooth, even surface.

In some cases, a binder material, such as asphalt or tar, may be added to the macadam to help bind the stones together and prevent them from shifting. However, McAdam originally designed his roads to be unbound, relying on the weight of traffic to compact the stones and create a stable surface.

Macadamized roads were first introduced in the United States in the early 1820s and quickly became the standard for road construction. They were used to build many of the major highways and roads in the country, and they continue to be used today in some areas.

Advantages of macadamized streets: Durable and can withstand heavy traffic, Drains well, preventing mud, relatively inexpensive to construct, and can be used in a variety of climates.

Disadvantages of macadamized streets: They can be noisy, dusty, slippery in wet weather, and requires regular maintenance.

Monday, August 14, 2023

Chicago Finally has a Fire Alarm Bell; City Ordinance Passed July 1855.

In February 1855, a deep-toned bell was installed in the new Courthouse.

The July 1855 ordinance passed, dividing the City into six fire districts. An alarm-sounding code was initiated:

Mr. Holden, from the Committee on Fire and Water, made a report in regard to a system of Fire Alarms. The South, West and North Divisions are numbered 1, 2, and 3. The city is divided into 6 districts.
  • One tap, followed by nine more taps, calls the firemen to district № 1.
  • Three taps, followed by nine other taps, calls them to district № 3.
  • Six taps, followed by nine other taps, calls them to district № 6.
  • Six strokes of the bell calls out that part of the fire department which is located in the district in which the fire breaks out, thus:
  • One tap followed by six others, Division № 1 to District № 1.
  • 2-6, calls Division № 1 to District № 2.
  • 3-6, calls Division № 2 to District № 3.
  • 4-6, calls Division № 2 to District № 4.
  • 5-6, calls Division № 3 to District № 5.
  • 6-6, calls Division № 3 to District № 6.
  • The Courthouse bell is also to designate the hours of 7, 12, 1, 6, and 9 o'clock by two taps an indefinite number of times.
  • The report was laid on the table and ordered to be printed.
A watchman was continually on duty in the tower. Besides ringing the bell, the watchman was responsible for handing out flags by day and lanterns by night, used to direct firefighters to the fire scene. There was no gas in those days, so torch boys ran ahead of the engine to light the way. When an alarm was rung at night, citizens were responsible for placing lighted candles in their windows, lighting the way for the firefighters.
The "Long John" steam fire engine tested in February 1858 was met with hostility from the volunteer firemen. The volunteers could sense this was the beginning of their extinction. The steam engine "Long John" was put into service on May 1, 1858, at the corner of Adams and Franklin Street. 
This Daguerreotype photograph was taken on July 4, 1855. The third floor and dome were not added to the Courthouse until 1858. The basement was above ground.


Firefighters of the volunteer hose companies and two paid members, the engineer and assistant engineer, manned the "Long John." The death knell of the volunteer fire department was rung on August 2, 1858, when the city council passed the ordinance organizing the paid City of Chicago Fire Department. The first completely paid company was Engine Company № 3, located at 225 South Michigan Boulevard. This company was one of fifteen engines and three hook and ladder companies acquired from the volunteer department. 
Courthouse in 1858.


ADDITIONAL ARTICLES:

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Tuesday, August 8, 2023

World's First Nuclear Reactor at the University of Chicago.

THE BEGINNING
Construction of CP-1, or Chicago Pile Number One, was constructed under the University of Chicago's Stagg Field football stadium (1893–1957) in an abandoned squash court. Mankind first harnessed the energy of the atom on December 2, 1942. Fermi's pile produced only ½ watts of power. It constantly emits radiation.

Envisioned by famous physicist Enrico Fermi, CP-1 was a crude, ugly contraption of 330 tons of graphite bricks surrounding 5 tons of unrefined uranium metal. It had no shielding to protect the scientists operating it, but it was nonetheless a major breakthrough in developing nuclear weapons. Fermi successfully achieved a controlled atomic chain reaction.

Despite its crudeness, CP-1 was a major breakthrough in nuclear science. It showed that it was possible to produce a controlled nuclear chain reaction and paved the way for developing atomic weapons and nuclear power plants.

As the use of CP-1 improved, concern for the safety of its operators (and the thousands of nearby students) promoted a move a few miles to the west to the Cook County Forest Preserves, Lemont, Illinois, named 'Site A.'
Chicago Pile Number One or CP-1












The scientists dismantled CP-1, moved it to Site A, and reassembled it into a cube about 25 feet high and 30 feet on each base. This time, Fermi added a few safety elements. Five-foot concrete walls surrounded its sides. Six inches of lead and 50 inches of lumber acted as a lid.

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Site A is about 20 acres in size and contains the buried remains of Chicago Pile-1.
Plot M is 150x140 foot (21K sq. ft.) area that is the radioactive waste dumpsite.

This redesigned reactor was named Chicago Pile-2 (CP-2). It was still a crude device but much safer than CP-1. CP-2 was used for research on nuclear weapons and other applications of atomic energy.

A year later, CP-3 joined CP-2. CP-3 was a more advanced reactor that used heavy water (H³O+) instead of graphite to slow nuclear reactions. CP-3 was used for research on nuclear power plants.
"World's First Nuclear Reactor," followed by a summarized history of Argonne. Photo: Forest Preserves of Cook County, IL.


For a decade, scientists conducted hundreds of experiments using these primitive reactors. The experiments ranged from nuclear weapons to biomedical research to sustained atomic energy.

The work at Site A and Argonne National Laboratory (which grew out of the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago) laid the foundation for the development of nuclear science and technology. 

The two reactors, CP-2 and CP-3, were shut down in 1954. The most radioactive and dangerous elements of the reactors were disposed of by the Oak Ridge Laboratory in Tennessee. 
U.S. Department of Energy, 1974.


The reactor was buried in 1954 an extremely deep hole, and the surrounding area was designated as a radioactive waste dumpsite.

In the 1940s and 50s, visitors to the Red Gate Woods often encountered well-armed military police. The MPs would question the confused strangers, check IDs, and search pockets. Then without an apology or explanation, the confused visitors would be ordered firmly to leave the area and not return.
RED GATE WOODS


In the early 1980s, amid the nuclear disasters at Three Mile Island and Chornobyl, the City of Chicago asked Greenpeace surveyors to test the burial grounds at Site A. The surveyors were horrified to find islands of radioactive elements dotting the Site. The City requested help from the federal government, but their request was denied. However, when the information about the radioactive contamination went public, there was an outcry from the community. People who had spent years strolling, picnicking, and riding horseback in the woods near Site A were outraged to learn that they had been exposed to dangerous radiation. 

The federal government eventually gave the City $30 million to fence off, analyze, and decontaminate the Site. A decade later, their efforts transformed Site A into a safe, recreational area where people can enjoy the outdoors without fear of radiation exposure. However, the Site is still monitored annually for radiation levels. 

The Legacy of Site A and Plot M is foremost a reminder of the early days of the nuclear age. It's a testament to the ingenuity of the scientists who developed the world's first atomic reactor. And most importantly, reminds us of the dangers of nuclear technology.

PUBLIC OUTCRY
In 1976, the public learned there was radioactive material in Red Gate Woods (Site A). The United States Department of Energy (DOE) released a report that found low levels of tritium in three wells in the area. Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen that is produced by nuclear reactors. The DOE concluded that the tritium likely came from Site A, which had been used for atomic research during World War II.

The DOE's report sparked a public outcry. The Illinois Department of Public Health (IDPH) conducted its own investigation and found that the wells' tritium levels were elevated but posed no immediate health risk to the public. However, the IDPH recommended that the DOE take steps to further study and clean up the Site.

The DOE continued to study Site A in the years that followed. In 1994, the DOE and the Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) began a significant cleanup effort at the Site. As part of the cleanup, 500 cubic yards (135 tons) of radioactive waste was removed and sent to the Hanford Site for disposal. By 2002, the IDPH had determined that the remaining materials posed no danger to public health.

Today, Site A is a fenced-off area within Red Gate Woods. There are signs in the parking lot that warn visitors about the radioactive material on the Site. However, the IDPH has determined that it is safe for people to visit the area as long as they stay on the trails, do not disturb the soil, and, most importantly, DO NOT DIG.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Friday, April 21, 2023

The Polluted Chicago River History of Improvements in Water Quality.

Along the Chicago River, further from the lakefront, the river remained something to be tolerated rather than enjoyed.

definition
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies that, include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater, usually due to human activities, so it negatively affects its uses.

In 1926 the "Henry C. Grebe & Co. Inc. Shipyard" moved to Chicago on the north branch of the Chicago River at Belmont Avenue, across the river from the famous Riverview [Amusement] Park. During WWII, the shipyard built over 56 ships, wood, and steel, for the U.S. Navy, including 21 tugboats, 4 tankers, and 28 minesweepers.
Grebe Shipyard looks east across the Chicago River. Note Riverview Park's rides, Shoot the Chutes and The Bobs roller coaster in the background, circa 1928.


The opening of Chicago’s first wastewater treatment plant in 1928 reduced the amount of raw sewage, but the river remained laden with industrial chemicals and byproducts. Riverside real estate was cheap, and river wards, dominated by pollution and stench, were still some of the poorest neighborhoods in the city.

During the Great Depression, many people lived directly on the river’s North Branch in a floating makeshift houseboat squatters’ camp near Irving Park Road.
Houseboats sitting along the North Branch of the Chicago River sometime between 1920 and 1929.


Around the same time, riverfront property near Division Street on Diversey Parkway was chosen as the site for one of the nation’s first low-income housing projects, the Chicago Housing Authority’s Julia Lathrop Homes.
Aerial view of 18th Street and the Chicago River during the river straightening project in May 1929.


The overcrowded, impoverished area on and around Goose Island became known as “Little Hell,” a reference to the conditions on the island as well as the coal-gasification plant that belched out smoke and flames nearby. It was occupied by a succession of immigrant groups who came to work in the steel mills and other factories along the North Branch.
Four girls standing in an empty lot in Little Hell in September 1902. 





In recent years, the relationship between Chicago’s river and its people has entered an entirely new chapter. Aided by the deindustrialization of the mid-twentieth century, a growing sense of environmental stewardship, federal regulations such as the Clean Water Act of 1972, and yet another round of monumental public works projects, the Chicago River continues to undergo dramatic improvements in water quality and accessibility.

Construction on the Tunnel and Reservoir Plan (TARP), or Deep Tunnel, began in 1975. The first portion of the massive underground system began functioning in 1981. It is a project that outdoes even Chicago’s forebearers in terms of investment. When it is completed in 2029 at the cost of $3.8 billion, it should be able to hold up to 20.55 billion gallons of excess water.

The Deep Tunnel project has reduced the number of combined sewer overflows (CSO) that take place in a year. But even in the areas where it is fully operational, it hasn’t managed to eliminate them completely. And given the increasing prevalence of intense, fast-moving storms, the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago (MWRD) now says that TARP will unlikely completely resolve Chicago’s sewage overflow problem in the future.

Since shortly after the passage of the federal Clean Water Act of 1972, a network of environmental groups has steadily gained in size and political strength and used it to monitor polluters and pressure government agencies, including the MWRD, to continue improving the Chicago River.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.