The History of Chicago's Air Quality.

Like most large cities, Chicago has a history of poor air quality. As it industrialized, Chicago relied on the dirty soft coal of southern Illinois for power and heat. Burned in boiler rooms, locomotives, steel mills, and domestic furnaces, the ubiquitous coal created an equally ubiquitous smoke. Soot soiled everything in the city, ruining furniture, merchandise, and building facades. Chicago legislated against dense smoke in 1881, but residents and visitors continued to complain about choking clouds and filthy soot. In addition to smoke, the numerous industries surrounding the slaughterhouses produced foul odors and dangerous chemical emissions, further diminishing air quality.

Coal burning steamer on the Chicago River.

Undoubtedly the poor air increased the severity of several pulmonary diseases, including asthma and pneumonia. Perhaps second only to Pittsburgh in smoke pollution at the opening of the twentieth century, Chicago gained a national reputation for its terrible air, but it also became a leader in regulation. In the early 1900s, a movement to force railroad electrification focused on the Illinois Central's waterfront line and kept the smoke issue in the news. Still, air quality did not significantly improve until coal use began to decline after World War II.

In the early 20th century, private, single-family, two and three flat residence were instructed to burn their waste in the small concrete garbage incinerators that the city constructed in the alleys behind each property as a solution to growing landfill issues. Garbage trucks would open the cooled incinerators and shovel out the ashes. Larger incinerators used by schools, hospitals, and apartment buildings.

In 1959 the city created the Department of Air Pollution Control. The new department investigated all types of emissions and suggested regulations for several previously ignored sources of pollution, including burning refuse and leaves. 

Public concern for air quality heightened after a 1962 disaster killed hundreds of London residents, and by 1964 Chicago received more than six thousand citizen air pollution complaints per year. As with the early movement to control smoke, the new activism focused on the potential negative health effects of impure air. Not surprisingly, the Loop, the Calumet Region, and northern Lake County, Indiana, were the most polluted districts in the metropolitan area.

In 1967 the U.S. Public Health Service determined that only New York City's air was more polluted than Chicago's. Impelled by citizen activism and new federal regulations in the 1970s, the city attempted to control the largest polluters, including the massive South Works steel plant. Even as these efforts began to reap benefits, however, the continuing suburbanization and auto dependence of the metropolitan area meant that auto emissions would plague the city for decades to come.

By the 1990s, a decline in heavy industry and effective regulation of auto emissions combined to significantly improve Chicago's air. Chicago no longer ranked among the nation's most heavily polluted cities.

By David Stradling
Edited by Neil Gale, Ph.D.

The Excelsior Press Brick Company at Greggs Milk Station, Todays Westmont, Illinois. (1872-1875)

In 1872, a few months after the Great Chicago Fire, William L. Gregg found the DuPage County region to have good clay for brickmaking. He started the Excelsior Press Brick Company on 80 acres at the highest point between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi River valley on the Chicago-Aurora Branch of the Chicago Burlington and Quincy Railroad (CB&Q), which was completed in 1864, affording easy access to the North, South and West Divisions of the City of Chicago. 

Early on, the area was called "Bushville" while another part of the area was called Gregg's, then later known by Gregg's Corner which was settled in the second half of the 19th Century. The Chicago Burlington and Quincy Railroad began to stop in Bushville in 1864. CB&Q renamed this stop "Greggs Milk Station" perhaps because of its proximity to the Excelsior brick company was to the train station or by the request of William Gregg. This area was Incorporated as Westmont, Illinois, in 1921, named for its location west of Chicago, the name implies "western mountain."

Gregg's name was left behind in the area, with Gregg’s Station, Gregg’s School, and Gregg’s Road (later Cass Avenue).

Claimed to be Gregg's Milk Station in Westmont, Illinois. (year unknown)

The Excelsior Press Brick Company's Chicago Office was located at: № 77 Dearborn Street (Today's Address: 503 S. Dearborn). The company employed at least 40 men and boys to produce up to 70,000 bricks in a 10 hour day.

The failure of the Excelsior Press Brick Company was due to Gregg's dry-pressed brick process which made the bricks crumbly.

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BRICK BY THE MILLION.

Excerpt from Chicago Daily Tribune, October 18, 1872

A New Source of Supply of Building Material.

The Works of the Excelsior Press Brick Manufacturing Company.

Inspection of the Establishment By a Large Excursion Party.

A large excursion party of gentlemen left the Central Depot yesterday forenoon, to visit the works of the Excelsior Pressed Brick Manufacturing Company of Chicago, situated at Gregg Station, about 18 miles from the city, on the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad. Included in the party wero the Philadelphia brick men who had made a trip to Chicago for the purpose of seeing the city in general, and of inspecting the new brick factory, in which they are all more or less interested. 

So many visitors came that four extra train cars were required for their transportation to Gregg Station, where they arrived in due time, and at once proceeded to inspect the brick factory, which is situated immediately south of the railroad track, having a side-track running past the kilns. The Excelsior Press Brick Company owned 80 acres of land at this point, for which they paid $175 per acre, and which is now held at $350 per acre. Here they have developed a practically inexhaustible deposit of a superior clay, which extends down to a depth of 60 feet, and here they have recently put in operation two of William L. Gregg's Excelsior Brick Machines, the first in use west of the Alleghenies, though they have been worked for over four years in Philadelphia. Several substantial frame structures have been erected for the brick machines, engine house, drying, sanding, and packing rooms, blacksmith shop, clay storehouse, etc., the works covering an area of about one acre, exclusive of the ground occupied by the kilns.

A brief sketch of the enterprise, its projector, and its claims and prospects will not be without interest to the people of Chicago, to whom, just now, the question of cheap and durable brick is of peculiar importance. Mr. Gregg, the inventor of the Excelsior Pressed Brick Machine, has spent twenty years and several fortunes in bringing his patent to perfection, and has, it is believed, fully demonstrated the uselessness of attempting to make serviceable brick from dry clay. His machine works the clay as nature moistens it, taking it directly from the bank to the machine, which accomplishes its own preparation, and does it well, if the quality of the production may be taken as a criterion. During the process of manufacture, the clay receives three distinct pressures, equal to 300 tons upon each brick, which is thus rendered extremely compact, weighing 20 percent more than ordinary brick of the same size, and, of course, renders the wall stronger, heavier, and capable of sustaining greater weight and strain. The brick are larger than the average made in Chicago, and in uniformity of shape, and perfect angles, will compare favorably with the manufactures of Philadelphia and Baltimore. Even the common bricks do not fail in these qualities. Scientific civil engineers in Philadelphia have pronounced them the strongest, best, and most serviceable brick for public works, such as culverts, sewers, arches, etc., and have sain that in the matter of dumpage alone there is a savings of at least 50 cents per thousand in comparison with home-made brick. Sixty million of these brick have been made in Philadelphia, where the two Gregg machines were unable to supply the demand.

The two machines now in operation at Gregg Station are capable of producing 70,000 brick per day of ten hours, as by the use of Caldwell's drying process the brick are dried as fast as they come from the machine, from which they are delivered on tramways to the drying tunnels, in which the "smokewater" is wholly evaporated, and the bricks are then shoved along by the same apparatus through the drying tunnels of the kiln, being handled but once previous to burning [firing]. A great feature of the establishment consists in the fact that brick may be made throughout the winter months, while hand-making yards have already closed for the season. Clay sufficient for several millions of brick is now under cover against the time when freezing weather shall put a stop to out-door work.

For the entire working of two machines, including the supply of clay, placing in the kilns, loading upon the cars, etc., forty-four men and boys are required. One month ago all these operatives were utterly unskilled in the business, but they are rapidly acquiring proficiency, and the quality of the brick is constantly improving in consequence. It is intended soon to work the machines night and day, when their total capacity will be increased to 140,000 brick per day. With these immense resources the Company can fill contracts without fail at all seasons of the year, and when it is remembered that it costs $30 per ton freight on pressed brick shipped from Philadelphia, the builders of Chicago can from some idea of the advantages which may be derived from the new manufactory at Gregg Station.

The smooth finish, fine grain, and perfect angles of the best quality of the pressed brick for fronts tell their own story, but it is well to state that the various architects in yesterday's party, after having made a thorough examination of the bricks, both common and front, held a consultation together, and unhesitatingly gave it as their opinion that, for strength in the wall, and capability of resisting pressure and strain, the Excelsior-made brick are far superior to the hand-made brick in Chicago. Another vast advantage is found in the fact that brick may be delivered on the C. B. & O. Railroad to almost any part of the city, as the road crosses the entire West Division, the business portion of the South Division, and lands in freight close to the boundary of the North Division, so that the saving of expense in cartage is a considerable item.

Chicago Tribune Ad - June 25, 1874

Court Actions

July 21, 1874 - Excelsior Press Brick Manufacturing Company vs. Thomas L. Kempater in the amount of $3,278.64.

April 13, 1875 - H.H. Scoville, Jr. vs. Excelsior Press Brick Manufacturing Company in the amount of $267.02.

October 9, 1875 - A. Shield et al. vs. Excelsior Press Brick Manufacturing Company in the amount of $101.00.

November 04, 1875 - MacGregor J. Mitcheson sued the Excelsior Press Brick Manufacturing Company for $2,000, and W.L. Gregg counter sued the same defendant for $5,000.

November 6, 1875 - The Chicago, Wilmington & Vermillion Coall Company began a suit for $7,000 against the Excelsior Press Brick Manufacturing Company.

November 18, 1875 - MacGregor J. Mitcheson vs. Excelsior Press Brick  Manufacturing Company, $1,004.98. William L. Gregg vs. Same, $4,101.77

November 25, 1875 - In the use of Malcolm McDonald et al. vs. the Excelsior Press Brick Manufacturing Company, Judge Williams yesterday appointed D.P. Newell Receiver, under a bond of $2,000.

November 30, 1875 - Judge Booth - B.B. Talcott et al. vs. Excelsior Press Brick Manufacturing Company, $2,099.96 - Richard Meldrum et al. vs. same, $4,271. 

Foreclosure and Forced Sale - Chicago Tribune - February 4, 1876

The Excelsior Press Brick Company owned 80 acres at the highest point of land near the C.B.&Q. Railroad, allowing for easy export of brick by steam locomotive. William Gregg's house was constructed atop the hill. It is now known as the Gregg Museum.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D. 

A 20th-century racial sign, located in Kenilworth, Illinois, along with other American and Canadian cities and towns.

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In historical writing and analysis, PRESENTISM introduces present-day ideas and perspectives into depictions or interpretations of the past. Presentism is a form of cultural bias that creates a distorted understanding of the subject matter. Reading modern notions of morality into the past is committing the error of presentism. Historical accounts are written by people and can be slanted, so I try my hardest to present fact-based and well-researched articles.

Facts don't require one's approval or acceptance.

I present [PG-13] articles without regard to race, color, political party, or religious beliefs, including Atheism, national origin, citizenship status, gender, LGBTQ+ status, disability, military status, or educational level. What I present are facts — NOT Alternative Facts — about the subject. You won't find articles or readers' comments that spread rumors, lies, hateful statements, and people instigating arguments or fights.

FOR HISTORICAL CLARITY

When I write about the INDIGENOUS PEOPLE, I follow this historical terminology:

• The use of old commonly used terms, disrespectful today, i.e., REDMAN or REDMEN, SAVAGES, and HALF-BREED are explained in this article.

Writing about AFRICAN-AMERICAN history, I follow these race terms:

• "NEGRO" was the term used until the mid-1960s.
• "BLACK" started being used in the mid-1960s.
• "AFRICAN-AMERICAN" [Afro-American] began usage in the late 1980s.

— PLEASE PRACTICE HISTORICISM —

THE INTERPRETATION OF THE PAST IN ITS OWN CONTEXT.

 

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My parents knew of these signs in Kenilworth and other Northshore Chicago suburbs where Jews and Negroes were prohibited from residing in or buying property.

"No Negroes, No Jews, No Dogs" Whether this image was an actual photo of the signage or not doesn't mitigate the fact that these exact signs were posted at entry roads into communities all over America and Canada.

History News Network, The George Washington University, 1918 F Street, NW

Washington, DC. Avoiding History at the National Trust

Excerpt from May, 2006:  

Joseph Sears founded Kenilworth with four key provisos: "Large lots, high standards of construction, no alleys, and sales to Caucasians only." "Caucasians only" was interpreted to exclude Jews as well as nonwhites. Later, Sears realized he had forgotten to allow for live-in servants and sent a note to each resident of Kenilworth; none objected. By 1950 the suburb had 79 Negroes — each a maid, nanny, or another type of servant.

A Jewish family, the Spiegels of mail-order catalog fame, managed to move into Kenilworth in the 1920s, but they may have been the only ones for decades. Certainly in the 1950s, Kenilworth was notorious for keeping Jews out. Kenilworth may also have excluded Catholics, but by the 1950s, that prohibition was loosening. In the 1970s, Kenilworth let in Jews.

Today, there are still no Jewish synagogues, Temples, or Houses of Worship in Kenilworth, Illinois. The closest synagogue is located in Wilmette, Illinois, which is a neighboring suburb.

Amended July 20, 2023:

In post-WWI (1914-18) Toronto, Canada, there were signs at public beaches that said "No Negroes, No Jews, No Dogs." "Picturing the Land. Narrating Territories in Canadian Landscape Art, 1500–1950." By Marylin J. McKay, p.197, McGill-Queen's University Press 2011. ISBN 978-0-7735-3817-7

Dan Noel commented on this article.

"The existence of racist signs in Kenilworth, Illinois, is a frequent topic for the Kenilworth Historical Society. According to its current director, thus far, no one has been able to produce any actual proof that these signs existed.

These signs, however, do feature quite prominently in many fictional works about the North Shore. Most accounts of these signs, such as featured above, rely on second or third hand anecdotal evidence. The fact that many memories of these signs do exist suggests that some proof may surface in the future – or that individuals are conflating their memories with fictional works or perhaps other parts on the United States.

If your parents (or anyone else) have specific first-hand memories of these 20th Century racist signs, the Kenilworth Historical Society is most interested in your recollections. Please try and describe the sign including its location in as much detail as possible.

The sign in the origin for this thread has its origins in the South and was used prominently in a play of the same name by John Henry Redwood which is set in 1949 North Carolina."

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My Father, a Jewish Optomistrist, had a patient who lived in Kenilworth. His office was downtown Chicago. He drove to the patient's house to fit and teach her how to insert and remove her new contact lenses. A sign, just like the above (but Negroes was spelled as Nigg**s), was located on the south end of Sheridan Road, so vehicles heading north into Kenilworth would see it before entering the suburb. I have no idea, but believe that there were other signs at the borders of Kenilworth.

 

My Father and I discussed this issue when I was a child  in elementary school, a few times in different grades as I got older. It became a learning experience for me about racisim and anti-semitism. 

The location of a similar sign above my Father saw.

Strong evidence suggests that Kenilworth, Illinois, was a sundown town in the past. The town has a long history of racial exclusion, and there is no record of any Negroes living in Kenilworth, not as servants, until 1964. That year, Lilian Calhoun and her husband became the first black family to purchase a home in the town. A cross was burned on their lawn shortly after they moved in, and they were subjected to other forms of harassment.

The Chicago Tribune Obituary of Lillian Calhoun, January 31, 2006.

In addition to the oral history of sundown laws in Kenilworth, there is some documentary evidence. In 1919, the town council passed an ordinance that prohibited "the renting or selling of any real estate to any person not of the Caucasian race." This ordinance was repealed in 1968, but it is clear that the town had a long history of racial discrimination.

History News Network, The George Washington University, 1918 F Street NW, Washington, DC. "History of Sundown Suburbs Threatens the Existence of Diverse Suburbs." 

 

Excerpt: January 7, 2014: 

Around Chicago, sundown suburbs included predominantly working-class towns like Cicero, middle-class towns like Oak Park, and upper-class towns like Kenilworth. Some of Chicago's diverse suburbs, such as Oak Park, now famously diverse, started as all-white sundown suburbs. So did some suburbs that are now majority black, such as Dolton. Sundown suburbs are often racially unstable. After all, part of their community ideology had been, blacks hurt property values, are often criminal, etc., so we must keep them out. "Naturally," then, as soon as more than a handful of black households move in, whites flee.

Today, in 2023, there are still no Jewish Synagogues, Temples, or Houses of Worship in Kenilworth, Illinois. The closest synagogue is in Wilmette, Illinois, the neighboring suburb to the north.

Kenilworth Historical Society Requests the Truth.

August 10, 2023

A letter was received from the Kenilworth Historical Society today about this article, disputing the claims of a sign stating "No Negroes, No Jews, No Dogs," which my Dad personally saw. Kenilworth, being racist and, at one point, a "Sundown Town," has now become a denialist of the truth, as is rampant in the U.S. today, such as on January 6, 2021, where an entire group declared the storming of the U.S. Capitol and injured officers that it was a peaceful gathering. 

Kenilworth Historical Society Contradictions:

"The Kenilworth Historical Society has found no evidence to support the claim that a sign as described in your article was displayed in Kenilworth. Furthermore, the Kenilworth Historical Society has researched the village's historic ordinances and found no racial or religious restrictions in any known ordinances." 

Yet the Historical Society says: "Racial and religious restrictions are in some property deeds from the 1920s and onwards but none during Joseph Sears' lifetime. Racial restrictions in property deeds did not begin until the 1920s and only occurred in newly annexed subdivisions outside the village's original boundaries. The inclusion of residential deed restrictions in Kenilworth, beginning in the 1920s, followed national trends. During the 1920s, racial and religious restrictions became more prevalent throughout the United States. In 1948, the Supreme Court declared racially restrictive covenants unenforceable."

"It is also correct that Kenilworth still has no Jewish synagogues, temples, or houses of worship. However, it is important to also state that no new places of worship have been constructed since 1904. Representatives from a local Jewish congregation march in Kenilworth's annual Memorial Day parade, and the Kenilworth Park District holds an annual menorah lighting in the village center." Well, there's proof that Kenilworth isn't anti-semitic.

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Jews were persecuted in World War I (July 28, 1914 – November 11, 1918). They were scapegoated for the war and subjected to violence and discrimination. In Russia, there were pogroms against Jews, and in Germany, there was a rise in anti-Semitism. Jews were also denied citizenship and civil rights in many countries. This carried over into the United States, and towns and cities quietly instituted Anti-Semitism, unwritten policies.

The 1920 date doesn't make sense. Anti-Semitism surfaced, again, when WWI began.

We appreciate your willingness to ensure that Kenilworth's history is correctly presented.

Laurel Flentye. President

Will Taylor, Director and Curator

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The Digital Research Library of Illinois History Journal™ puts truth to paper. Illinois history is documented and reported factually without any other agenda. 

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.