Showing posts with label IL Northwest. Show all posts
Showing posts with label IL Northwest. Show all posts

Saturday, April 13, 2024

The Illinois, aka Illiniwek & Illini: A Chronicle of Power, Demise, and Women's Roles.

The narrative of The Illinois, aka Illiniwek or Illini, unfolds like a saga, etched against the backdrop of the Illinois country. Once a thriving confederacy, they rose to prominence, endured hardship, and ultimately witnessed the decline of their civilization. This interwoven account incorporates various threads, traversing from their early encounters with Europeans to the internal dynamics of Illiniwek society, with a particular focus on women's crucial role.
MEETING OF MARQUETTE AND JOLLIET WITH THE ILLINIWEK TRIBES.


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The Illinois  is pronounced as plural: [The Illinois'] was a Confederacy of Indian Tribes consisting of the Kaskaskia, Cahokia, Peoria, Tamarais (Tamaroa, Tamarois), Moingwena, Mitchagamie (Michigamea), Chepoussa, Chinkoa, Coiracoentanon, Espeminkia, Maroa, and Tapouara tribes that were of the Algonquin family. They spoke Iroquoian languages. The Illinois called themselves "Ireniouaki" (the French word was Ilinwe). All the tribes seemed to work together without issue. 

Our story commences with the Grand Village of La Vantum, a bustling metropolis teeming with 6,000 Illiniwek inhabitants. Nestled strategically along the Illinois River, this community thrived. The French explorers Marquette and Jolliet emerged as the first Europeans to set foot in La Vantum in 1673. Chief Chassagoac welcomed the newcomers warmly, exemplifying the Illiniwek's peaceful nature. This initial contact began a complex relationship between the Illiniwek and the Europeans, ultimately reshaping their history.

Before European arrival, the Illiniwek Confederacy, a powerful alliance of Algonquian-speaking tribes, dominated the region. However, the arrival of French missionaries and fur traders in the 17th century ushered in a period of immense change. The Illiniwek, unfortunately, bore the brunt of these transformations. Warfare and the introduction of diseases by the Europeans wreaked havoc on their communities. By the 1830s, a once-mighty confederacy had been reduced to a single village, their ancestral lands ceded to appease European encroachment. The Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma stands today as the sole remnant of this formidable people.
Illinois Confederation


However, a closer look at the Illiniwek's history in the late 17th century reveals a more nuanced narrative than one of mere decline. Recent scholarship challenges the portrayal of the Illiniwek as a weak and passive people as depicted in early French accounts. Instead, evidence suggests they were a formidable force, strategically leveraging bison hunting and the slave trade to bolster their power. This revisionist perspective underscores the importance of decentering European narratives and foregrounding the agency of Indian groups in shaping their destinies.

A pivotal event that tragically altered the course of Illiniwek history unfolded in the village of La Vantum in 1680. A brutal massacre orchestrated by the Iroquois tribe left an indelible scar on the Illiniwek people. The Iroquois, harboring animosity towards the Illiniwek, descended upon La Vantum, unleashing a torrent of violence. French explorer Tonti, residing in the village alongside a contingent of priests and soldiers, became embroiled in the conflict. The Iroquois, mistaking the French for Illiniwek allies, subjected Tonti to torture. The massacre also claimed the lives of two priests, Fathers Gabriel and Zenobe. Countless Illiniwek people perished in the onslaught, while the survivors were forced to flee, forever displaced from their homeland.

To fully comprehend the Illiniwek Confederacy, we must delve into its foundation – the constituent tribes. The Peoria, Kaskaskia, and Cahokia were just a few prominent groups that united under the banner of the Illiniwek. Interestingly, the name "Illiniwek," signifying "the men," originated from their own designation. Upon encountering this powerful alliance, French explorers bestowed upon them the name Illinois, a moniker that has endured. The arrival of Marquette and Jolliet in 1673, the voyage etched a path down the Mississippi River, marked a significant chapter in the annals of European-Illiniwek interaction.

The narrative is complete by acknowledging women's critical role in Illiniwek society. While Illiniwek women were not traditionally involved in hunting or warfare, their contributions were essential. They shouldered the responsibility of gathering food, nurturing children, and managing the domestic sphere. Their influence extended beyond the household, as some women served as shamans and actively participated in specific ceremonies. Marriages within Illiniwek society adhered to a gift-giving system, and women possessed the remarkable right to divorce their husbands. Although societal norms placed men in a position of higher authority, Illiniwek women wielded considerable power within their designated domain.

The Illiniwek saga, a tapestry woven with threads of triumph and tribulation, stands as a testament to the enduring human spirit. From their initial encounters with Europeans to the internal dynamics of their society, their story offers valuable insights into a bygone era. By delving into the complexities of their history, we gain a deeper appreciation for the Illiniwek people and the indelible mark they left on the landscape of North America.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Tuesday, April 2, 2024

Hooppole, Illinois, Hopes and Hardships.

Nestled in the heart of Henry County, Illinois, lies the small village of Hooppole, with a population of 169 (2023). Its name is as unusual as its story. Legend has it that the area was once a haven for coopers (barrel-makers) who ventured from Rock Island searching for the pliable hickory saplings abundant in the region. The wood from these trees made excellent hoops for barrels, thus inspiring the curious name "Hooppole."

In the late 19th century, hopes for progress and prosperity soared in Hooppole with the promise of a railroad. The Hooppole, Yorktown & Tampico Railroad (HY&T), nicknamed "The Dummy," was envisioned as an electric interurban line to connect Hooppole to larger markets. However, financial constraints and a lack of enthusiasm from some landowners led to a less-than-ideal route and, ultimately, a steam-powered operation.

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The Evanston Avenue (Broadway today) Steam-Dummy Locomotive, Chicago, Illinois. 1864


The first car of this steamed-powered train was designed for the engine. The engine was enclosed to look like a passenger car, hence the name 'dummy.' The story goes that if the horses saw the engine, they would get spooked. It was thought that the more familiar appearance of a coach presented by a steam dummy compared to a conventional locomotive engine would be less likely to frighten horses when these trains had to operate in city streets. Later, it was discovered that the noise and motion of the operating gears of a steam engine frightened horses rather than the unfamiliar outlines of a steam engine.

The HY&T officially began service in 1909. Despite its limitations, the railroad proved instrumental in opening up the area, allowing farmers easier access to sell crops and giving residents a lifeline to larger towns like Chicago. It was hardly a smooth ride, though. The twists and turns of the track, resulting from land disputes, were a constant source of amusement and frustration for passengers.
HY&T Depot, Hooppole, Illinois. 1952




Through the first half of the 20th century, Hooppole remained a small agricultural community. While the Great Depression brought hardship, the folks of Hooppole possessed a resilient spirit. The HY&T Railroad, however, faced mounting challenges. After declaring bankruptcy in 1943, a dedicated investor named Howard Mathis kept the line chugging along for another decade. Sadly, the "Dummy" made its final run in 1954, marking the end of an era.

Today, Hooppole stands as a testament to the enduring spirit of rural America. While the railroad is gone, a sense of history lingers. Life in Hooppole maintains its quiet, small-town charm.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Monday, April 1, 2024

Elizabeth, Illinois, home to the Apple River Fort State Historic Site.

The Village of Elizabeth, population 695 (2022), was incorporated in 1868. It is located in the center of the rolling hill country of Jo Daviess County in northwestern Illinois. 

In the 1820s, rich lead deposits were discovered in the Galena region in northwestern Illinois. This attracted miners and settlers, leading to the growth of small communities. The Apple River Settlement was established in 1827. Several families set up homes, stores, and a general store that formed the core of the settlement.

President Andrew Jackson's administration supported a series of actions against the Indians, including the Indian Removal Act of 1830. 
Apple River Fort State Historic Site, 311 East Myrtle Street, Elizabeth, Illinois.


Black Hawk, a leader of the Sauk, disputed the validity of the treaties and attempted to return to their ancestral lands in Illinois. Conflicts erupt between settlers and Black Hawk's band. Amidst rising fear in 1832, area settlers built the Apple River fort in less than a week. Along with other fortifications hastily built in the region, they all served as shelters during the war.

Black Hawk led a resistance movement against forced removal from their ancestral lands. The tribes included the Sauk (Sac), Meskwaki (Fox)Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), and Kickapoo warriors.

Black Hawk's warriors attack the Apple River Fort, resulting in an hour-long battle (Battle of Apple River Fort; June 1832). The settlers successfully defended the fort, leading Black Hawk's forces to withdraw. This battle is notable as one of the few forts directly confronted by Black Hawk.


Following the Black Hawk War (September 21, 1832), the "Treaty with the Sac and Fox Indians" (sometimes referred to as the Black Hawk Purchase) resulted in a significant cession of land east of the Mississippi River by the Sac and Fox tribes to the US government, then move to a reservation in Iowa. The Sac and Fox Nation in Iowa, now known as the Mesquakie Indian Settlement, purchased back a portion of their ancestral land in the 19th century. This area is called Meskwakiinaki.

Around 1847, the fort was dismantled, and its timbers were used to construct a barn.

The Three Elizabeths Folklore
As legend has it, three women, all named Elizabeth, stood shoulder-to-shoulder, successfully defending the Apple River Fort during the 1832 Black Hawk War. In their honor, what had been known as the Apple River Settlement was renamed  the village of Elizabeth.
 
The anecdote states that three women, all named Elizabeth, bravely defended the Apple River Fort during the Black Hawk War in 1832. 
  • Elizabeth Armstrong was particularly praised for her leadership and courage, motivating and assisting those inside the fort.
  • Elizabeth Van Volkenburg (incorrect: Von Voltinburg)
  • Elizabeth Winters
These women undoubtedly played important roles. They assisted in helping anyway they could. Reloading weapons, molding musket balls, nursing, etc. They showed unwavering resolve during the attack.

Today's Elizabeth is home to five museums, numerous gift shops, the largest antique mall in northwestern Illinois, and the Apple River Fort State Historic Site. Visit the Chicago Great Western Railway Depot Museum and the Elizabeth History Museum. 

Elizabeth has been described as the "undiscovered treasure" of northwestern Illinois.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Saturday, March 30, 2024

Bishop Hill, Illinois, Utopia on the Prairie. The Eric Janson, aka Erik Jansson Story.

Like the Pilgrims at Plymouth Rock and the Quakers who followed William Penn to Pennsylvania, the Jansonists were a group of Protestants who fled oppression seeking religious freedom on the shores of America. Eric [Erik] Jannson (1780-1850) was known as the Wheat Flour Messiah. He had a debilitating illness cured by a miracle that reshaped the rest of his life. He began preaching about our relationship with the Lord, not filtered by the state religion. 
Erik Jansson. Image, 1850.
Erik Jansson married Anna Larsson on October 29, 1815. Their seven children; Erik (1818-Deceased), Anders (1821-1822), Johanna (1822-1894), Peter (1824-1824), Gustaf (1828-Deceased), Jonas (1831-Deceased), and Christina (1835-1836).

Jansson preached to his followers in Sweden about what he considered to be the abominations of the Lutheran Church and emphasized the doctrine that the faithful were without sin. As Jansson's ideas became more radical, he began to lose support from many of his sympathizers and was forced to leave Sweden amid growing persecution. Jansson had previously sent Olof Olsson, a trusted follower, as an emissary to the United States to find a suitable location where the Janssonists could set up a utopian community centered on their religious beliefs. According to Jansson, this community would become the "New Jerusalem," and their beliefs would soon spread worldwide. They sent a scout ahead to purchase property in the western wilderness of Illinois.
The Colony Church was built in 1848. The sanctuary is on the second floor. Designed to reflect the doctrinal ideas of Erik Jansson.
Janssonist Criticisms of the Lutheran Church
Jansson believed the mainstream Lutheran Church had become too comfortable with the world, losing its spiritual fervor and focus on personal salvation. He saw the clergy as more concerned with status and material wealth than true spiritual guidance. Jansson condemned what he felt was excessive emphasis on rituals and sacraments within Lutheranism. Jansson argued these practices did not guarantee salvation and could lead to a false sense of security, detracting from a personal relationship with God. Jansson strongly opposed the Swedish Lutheran Church's close connection to the state. He believed this compromised its spiritual integrity and led to a dilution of true Christian doctrine. Jansson and his followers held a strict literal interpretation of the Bible. They rejected what they saw as attempts by the established church to explain away or reinterpret certain passages to align with societal changes. Janssonists practiced a form of religious communalism, where property and resources were shared. This contrasted with the more traditional Lutheran emphasis on individual faith and family structures.

After being jailed for his beliefs, he fled Sweden with more than 1400 followers to their new home in western Illinois. These people sold everything they owned, some families were divided, and they took the arduous journey across the North Atlantic to America in 1846.

The Bishop Hill Colony (20 miles east of Galesburg) was founded in 1846 by Eric Jansson. Population: 108 (2022)

The Colony struggled early on after its founding. Many of the first 1400 colonists died from diseases on the way to Bishop Hill (named for Eric Jansson's birthplace, Biskopskulla), while others became disillusioned and stayed in New York. The quarters in Bishop Hill were cold and crowded, and food was scarce. After the first winter, life at the Colony began to improve.

What happened to Janssonists who stayed in New York?
It's likely that many Janssonists who stayed in New York gradually assimilated into the larger American society. They may have joined other Lutheran congregations or adopted different religious affiliations altogether. There's a possibility that some tried to maintain smaller, independent Janssonist communities in New York or its surrounding areas. However, without Jansson's leadership, these would likely have been less organized and more short-lived. A few may have even become disenchanted with America altogether and chose to return to Sweden.

In the next few years, housing was upgraded from dugouts to brick living areas, and crops were planted on 700 acres. By 1849, Bishop Hill had constructed a flour mill, two sawmills, a three-story frame church, and various other buildings. The Bishop Hill Colony was communistic in nature, as dictated by Jansson. Thus, everyone owned everything, and no one had more possessions than another. Work in the Colony was highly rigorous and regimented. It wasn't uncommon to see hundreds of people working together in the fields or large groups of laborers engaged in other tasks.
The Colony Hotel was initially built in 1852 as a dwelling for Colonists.
Letters sent back home from Janssonists to their friends and family, telling of the fertile agricultural land in the interior of North America, stimulated substantial migration for several decades and contributed to the formation of the Swedish-American ethnic community of the American Midwest.

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Both "Eric  Janson" and "Erik Jansson" (son of Jan) are considered correct spellings of the Swedish religious leader's name. When his story and movement spread internationally, the spelling of his last name was usually Anglicized to "Eric Janson."

The preaching and philosophy of Erik Janson are too complex for these few paragraphs, except to say that his convictions inspired many and caused consternation among more than a few. Bishop Hill became a hub for thousands of Swedish immigrants who eventually settled much of the Midwest, from Galva to Galesburg, Minnesota, to North Dakota.

Erik Janson's Murder
Bishop Hill underwent a major upheaval in 1850 after the murder of Erik Janson on May 13, 1850. This happened while Janson was at the courthouse in Cambridge, Illinois. According to some accounts, Janson had just delivered a sermon referencing Biblical passages where Jesus talks about drinking wine in his Father's kingdom. [Matthew 26:29], [Mark 14:25], [Luke 22:18], and [John 14:3]. 

Janson was assassinated by a former colony member, John Root, who was upset with Janson for interfering with his marriage to one of Janson's cousins. After their leader's death, the people of Bishop Hill appointed a group of seven trustees to run the affairs of the Colony. Among the trustees were Jonas Olsson and Olof Johnson, who would become the primary leaders of the Colony as they had been two of Janson's closest aides. The Colony flourished under these two men and the rest of the trustees. The workforce was reorganized to become more efficient, and more buildings were erected. However, despite Bishop Hill's success, financial problems arose amid accusations of mismanagement against Olof Johnson in 1857. Without colony approval, Johnson had made several significant investments that had turned out to be disastrous. Colonists voted to end the communal system as Bishop Hill headed for financial ruin. In 1861, the formal dissolution of the Colony was official, and many of its people would soon be forced to move away. 

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The followers of Jansson believed he would rise from the dead three days after his death, but that did not happen. The religious group eventually came to terms with Jansson’s death. John Root was convicted of manslaughter and served only one year in prison before being pardoned. However, he died not long after his release.

The community holdings were divided among the members, with women and children also receiving shares of property, which was unusual in the 1860s.

At the turn of the 20th century, many of the Colony buildings were falling into disrepair. The Old Settlers, The Bishop Hill Heritage Association, and the State of Illinois stepped up to save the existing buildings. Throughout the 1970s, restoration and preservation became the call to arms. With help from the Swedish Royal family, descendants of the hardy pioneers, and thousands of hours of volunteer labor, Bishop Hill became a thriving community once more. 

Descendants of Erik Janson still lived in the Colony until December 20, 2004, when Erik's great-great-grandson and Bishop Hill volunteer fireman Theodore Arthur Myhre Sr. died south of the Colony while on a fire service call. Other known descendants remain in Illinois.

Many other 'historic villages' one might visit are actually reproductions. They may have done some archeology, built new, or moved a mish-mash of landmark structures to an artificial commons. But Bishop Hill is the same town you would have seen if you came through in a horse and buggy over 175 years ago. It is a living, fully functional village with a mayor and fire department. The people who live here still farm the surrounding countryside, cut firewood for the winter, plant broom corn in the spring, and celebrate the changing of the seasons, just as their Swedish ancestors did. Yes, it's done for the folks who come to participate, but more importantly, it's because it is their way of living authentically. The crafts and trades that supported our forefathers and mothers are still a source of livelihood today. The pottery and brooms you buy are the same ones they use in their kitchens.

The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1984. Bishop Hill is interpreted as a living community of Swedish-American heritage. Due to state budget cuts, the Bishop Hill State Historic Site was closed for nearly 5 months from December 1, 2008, to April 23, 2009. Today, the site is open Wednesday through Friday during regular business hours.

With tens of thousands of visitors yearly from all 50 states, Sweden, and other Scandinavian countries, Bishop Hill has a well-earned reputation as a place to step out of the hustle and bustle and back to a simpler time. 
The Steeple Building.
Several historically significant buildings have survived and are scattered throughout the village, four of which are owned by the state of Illinois and managed as part of the Bishop Hill State Historic Site. In addition to the historic structures, the state owns the village park with a gazebo and memorials to the town's early settlers and Civil War soldiers. A brick museum building houses a valuable collection of folk art paintings by colonist Olof Krans.

Bishop Hill, Illinois, is genuinely Utopia on the Prairie.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Saturday, February 24, 2024

Elias Kent Kane was a key figure in the constitutional convention that drafted Illinois' constitution in 1818.

Elias Kent Kane left a lasting mark on the state of Illinois. Born in New York City in 1794, Kane pursued a legal education at Yale University. Shortly after graduating, he ventured west, finding himself in Nashville, Tennessee, for a brief period before moving on to Kaskaskia, then the capital of the Illinois Territory, in 1814. Kane's arrival proved fortuitous as he was quickly elevated to a territorial judge position, marking the beginning of an influential political career.

As Illinois moved toward statehood in 1818, Kane was a central delegate to the state's constitutional convention. He became a key figure in shaping the state's fundamental laws and earned the nickname "Father of the Illinois Constitution." In the same year, Kane was appointed Illinois' first Secretary of State. Ever ambitious, Kane won election to the United States Senate in 1824, serving as a Democratic senator until his untimely death in 1835.

Elias Kent Kane is buried in Evergreen Cemetery, at 501 West Holmes Street, Chester, Illinois, in the Kane family plot. The cenotaph[1] monument is located at the Congressional Cemetery at 1801 East Street SE, Washington, D.C., which was erected in Kane's honor because he died while serving in office as a United States Senator from Illinois.
Throughout his political career, Kane remained engaged in Illinois affairs and wielded power as part of an influential political faction. While not without controversy, his work helped to lay the foundations of government in the newly established state. Kane's legacy includes Kane County, Illinois, formed in his honor a year after his passing. Though initially buried in a family cemetery, Kane's remains were later reinterred in Evergreen Cemetery, Chester, Illinois. A cenotaph[1] stands in his honor at Washington's Congressional Cemetery.
Early Life and Career

Born: June 7, 1794, New York City

Education: Graduated from Yale College in 1813

Initial Career: Briefly practiced law in Nashville, Tennessee, before moving to Kaskaskia, Illinois Territory in 1814. He was appointed as a territorial judge almost immediately.

Move to Illinois: Relocated to Kaskaskia, Illinois Territory in 1814 and was quickly appointed a territorial judge.

Role in Illinois Statehood

Constitutional Convention: A pivotal delegate to the 1818 convention that drafted the Illinois State Constitution.

First Secretary of State: Kane held the first-ever position as Secretary of State of Illinois from 1818 to 1824.

U.S. Senate: Elected to the U.S. Senate in 1824, serving from 1825 until he died in 1835. He was reelected in 1831.

First Secretary of State (1818-1824): Kane held the first-ever position as Secretary of State of Illinois.

U.S. Senator (1825-1835): Elected as a Democratic-Republican (later Jacksonian Democrat) to the U.S. Senate, where he served for two terms.

Political Views and Legacy

Democratic Party: A member of the Jacksonian Democratic Party.

Advocate of Internal Improvements: Kane championed infrastructure development in Illinois, supporting projects like the Illinois and Michigan Canal.

Land Policy: Played a significant role in shaping land policy in Illinois.

Kane County: Though he never lived within its borders, Kane County, Illinois, was named in his honor in 1836.

Jacksonian Democrat: Kane was a strong supporter of President Andrew Jackson.

Advocate of Internal Improvements: Kane championed infrastructure development in Illinois, supporting projects like the Illinois and Michigan Canal.

Controversial Figure: His political alliances and dealings made him a somewhat controversial figure. Some historians argue he used his positions for personal and political gain.

Death and Burial

Died: December 12, 1835, in Washington, D.C., at age 41.

Burial: Initially interred in a family cemetery, then reinterred at Evergreen Cemetery, Chester, Illinois.

Kane County, Illinois: The county is named in his honor.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.



[1] A cenotaph is a monument built to honor a person or group of people whose remains lie elsewhere. The word comes from the Greek "kenos taphos," meaning "empty tomb."

Thursday, July 6, 2023

Highland Amusement Park, Freeport, Illinois (1905-1949)

Highland Amusement Park was a popular amusement park in Freeport, Illinois, which opened in 1905. It was located on the banks of the Pecatonica River, just south of downtown Freeport.

The park was initially called Freeport Park but was renamed Highland Park in 1912. 
This photo is a visual aid.


The park was opened in 1907 by John R. Highland, a local businessman. Highland Amusement Park quickly became a popular destination for families from all over the region. The park featured a variety of rides and attractions, including a roller coaster, a Ferris wheel, an Allan Herschell carousel, a water slide, and other rides for young children. 

Highland Amusement Park was sold to a new owner, who invested heavily in new rides for young children and attractions in 1929. The park continued to grow in popularity throughout the 1930s and into the early 1940s.

The park's Midway featured a variety of games and food vendors. Some of the games offered included Skee-Ball (popular since the early 1900s), ring toss, and balloon darts, all winning small toys for performance. Some food vendors had a hot dog stand, a popcorn vendor, and a candy shop.

Highland Amusement Park closed in 1949 due to financial problems.



Krape Park, 1122 South Burchard Avenue, Freeport, Illinois, ended up with the Allan Herschell 20-horse carousel, which was completely refurbished and reopened on July 4, 1959, in the park. In 2018, the Carousel was completely disassembled and refurbished again.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Wednesday, June 28, 2023

Alexander Amusement Park, Princeton, Illinois. (1922-1953)

Alexander Park dates back to 1922. Alexander Park was a privately owned area built by Alex Anderson and his two sons, Lester and Robert. At the time, it was the first outdoor pool with a re-circulating water system in this part of the country. The pool was originally 100 feet long and 75 feet wide.

The park had a dance hall that accommodated up to 1,000 people. The "Alexander Park Ballroom" hosted various events, including dances, concerts, and community meetings. The park also had a children's roller coaster, a merry-go-round, an 18-hole miniature golf course, and other kiddie amusement rides.

The pool was managed by Robert Anderson, son of Alexander. In 1937 management was taken over by William (Bill) Howard. In 1951, Robert Anderson and Bill Howard could see a need for remodeling and expanding the facilities at the pool. Extensive research was done over 2 years to build a new pool house.

In the spring of 1953, the Anderson Family generously donated the Alexander Pool with 11 acres of park to the Princeton Park District. The park was renamed Alexander Park and Pool.

In June 1954, the new bathhouse was opened. It was determined that the traffic coming through the entrance at the Park Tavern was hazardous due to all of the children that could be in that area. A blacktop road was constructed to go into the park from the East, and a new road was built from Park Avenue West, fittingly named Anderson Street.


In October 1977, a bid was accepted from Charles H. Eichelkraut & Son of Ottawa, Illinois, to construct the new swimming pool. In June 1978, the current Alexander Pool was opened. The park is used for community events like the Princeton Family Fun Fest.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.



Friday, May 5, 2023

Abraham Lincoln's Pet Peeves.

One thing that bothered Lincoln was dishonesty or deception, especially from politicians. He famously said, "I desire to so conduct the affairs of this administration that if at the end, when I come to lay down the reins of power, I have lost every other friend on earth, I shall at least have one friend left, and that friend shall be down inside of me."

Lincoln was also known to dislike wastefulness and inefficiency in government and bureaucracy. He believed the government should be run efficiently and effectively to serve the people.

Additionally, Lincoln was known to dislike certain aspects of the legal system, such as technicalities to avoid justice or the excessive use of legal procedures to delay trials. He once said, "Discourage litigation. Persuade your neighbors to compromise whenever you can. Point out to them how the nominal winner is often a real loser ─ in fees, expenses, and waste of time."

Overall, Lincoln was a man of strong convictions and beliefs and likely had many things that he found frustrating or annoying. However, these are a few examples of things he was known to have disliked.
No, Not this kind of Pet Peeve.








Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Wednesday, April 26, 2023

The 1833 Winnebago Murder Trial in Frontier Illinois.

Indians of the Great Lakes region subscribed to a kinship-centered system of justice.  

In the case of murder, the victim's family was obligated to retaliate in kind against the perpetrator's family unless the presentation of a suitable gift could be arranged to "cover the dead," that is, assuage the aggrieved relatives. Similar customs applied as well to intertribal killings, and quite naturally, Indians expected to continue their practice of justice in whatever conflicts would arise with white settlers. In doing so, they were frustrated by the Anglo-American legal system, in which, rather than the family, administered justice. One such confrontation in frontier Illinois occurred when Winnebago Indians attempted to assert their ethos in coping with the intrusion of whites into the upper Mississippi Valley.

The Winnebagos were a Siouan-speaking people encountered by the French in the Green Bay vicinity in the early 1600s. Over the next two centuries, members of the tribe pursued the fur trade throughout south-central Wisconsin and northwestern Illinois along the Rock River and its tributaries. In the War of 1812, several Winnebago bands fought alongside the British and their allies, Tecumseh and the Shawnee Prophet. Later, leaders of the bands were upset when they learned that their British allies had made peace with the Americans. The leaders remained disgruntled when Superintendent of Indian Affairs William Clark invited them to send a peacemaking delegation to his headquarters at St. Louis. Still influenced by British traders, they were not anxious to acknowledge fealty to the Americans. While at least one band of Winnebago under Choukeka (Spoon or Ladle) Decora signed the June 3, 1816, treaty of amity, other bands refused. 

Tensions increased as lead miners, traders, and military men penetrated Winnebago lands. The newcomers commonly assessed the Winnebago demeanor as fiercely independent, resistant to "civilization," sullen, and aloof. 

American officials expressed irritation that the disaffected Winnebago bands continued to make seasonal visits to British posts at Fort Maiden across the strait from Detroit and at Drummond Island at the northern end of Lake Huron. There they received presents and encouragement from sympathetic British commanders.

American efforts at stopping the trips could have been more effective. Colonel Joseph Lee Smith, commander of the Third Infantry Regiment at Fort Howard (Green Bay), regarded the Winnebagos as "vicious," "active," and having a "mischievous character." As proof, in January 1820, he related the following example of Winnebago's duplicity with the British. A band claiming they were bound for Mackinac had stopped making friendly statements States. On departing, however, instead, Drummond obtained British gifts; on bypassed Fort Howard. Discovered and destroyed a hill near Lake Winnebago Green Bay. He argued that only the presence of an intimidating force of Americans would hold in check the tribe's "evil and unfriendly propensities."

At about the same time, traders and government officials at Green Bay experienced hostility as they attempted to cross waterways near Winnebago villages. An Indian from a village at Lake Winnebago fired a shot that pierced the awning of a boat carrying Captain William Whistler, his three children, and four or five soldiers. The boat flew the American flag. Whistler stopped the vessel and ordered his interpreter to make inquiries. The Winnebago declared that they controlled the route and that no vessel could pass without their permission. As no one was injured and because Whistler did not wish to press matters at that point, he and his party proceeded unmolested.

In retaliation for the harassment, John Bowyer, the Indian agent at Green Bay, soon arrested The Smoker, a visiting "great chief of the Winnebagos." Replying to Bowyer's interrogation, The Smoker professed ignorance of the attack but stated that if the reports proved true, he would bring in the band's leader (who, in the meantime, had reportedly gone on a hunt up the Mississippi) "before the Ice [is] made." With that guarantee, Bowyer released The Smoker and announced that the first chief who approached the fort would be imprisoned if the matter were not resolved by spring. 
Lewis Cass, Governor of Michigan Territory from 1813 to 1831.
In a letter to Michigan Territorial Governor Lewis Cass, Bowyer described the Winnebagos as "unfriendly to the Government." He cautioned that "their character with the white and red people are bad, they are great liars and robbers" and that "no dependence can be placed in what they say."

Bowyer's reports described several confrontations. A boat belonging to a trader named Ermatinger was shot in the mast while crossing Lake Winnebago. On the Fox River, an army surgeon reported that he had been treated "insolently" by Winnebagos, who seized and searched his baggage. Nothing short of placing a strong garrison at the Fox-Wisconsin portage, Bowyer insisted, would "keep this tribe in order."

In the spring of 1820, Thomas Forsyth, an agent at Rock Island, reported to Clark that the Winnebagos had been "daring and impudent" in the vicinity of Fort Armstrong, killing government-owned cattle and repeatedly stealing corn from the Sauks. Clark showed little inclination to trust a delegation of principal men from a Rock River Winnebago band who met him in St. Louis "on a visit of inquiry and friendly professions." In passing on Forsyth's report, Clark claimed to Secretary of War John Caldwell Calhoun that "no confidence can be placed in this vicious Tribe" because "they have later been very insolent and even threatened Fort Armstrong after having killed their cattle." Clark asserted that a lesson for the Winnebago renegades was long overdue, for "they appear not to have any respect for our government, and friendly councils have never produced any favorable effect in preventing their excesses." 
John Caldwell Calhoun, U.S. Secretary of War.


To Forsyth, Clark urged vigilance, yet he admitted that he did not know what the federal government intended to do about the murderers. In April 1820, when Governor Lewis Cass was embarking on a tour of the Northwest, Calhoun reminded him that "certain individuals of the Winnebagoes, Chippewas, and Menomonee have evinced a hostile spirit, which must be repressed." In consultation with each tribe, wrote Calhoun, Cass should "represent to them the desire of the Government to cultivate friendly dispositions towards them, but which cannot be continued unless they effectually restrain the hostile conduct of their people."

In July, the scholarly Jedidiah Morse spent fifteen days in the vicinity of Green Bay on an expedition authorized by the War Department. In his final report, Morse stated that he found it difficult to obtain reliable information on the Winnebagos, partly because of the language barrier and partly because "no other tribe seems to possess so much jealousy of the whites, and such reluctance to have intercourse with them." Morse also commented on Winnebago's sense of territoriality. He confirmed that "they will suffer no encroachment upon their soil; nor any persons to pass through it, without giving a satisfactory explanation of their motives and intentions." Whites who failed to take that customary and precautionary step, said Morse, endangered their lives.

At the time, Morse's antipathy towards whites bated to a "state of consideration." Two young warriors' relatives had been accused of the murder and scalping of two soldiers just outside the gates of Fort Armstrong. Both Indian and white behavior during the episode is well documented in letters and reports, and a close analysis of those records reveals important cultural divergence in the matters of retributive justice and punishment. 

Francis Paul Prucha observes in his study of United States Indian policy that normal federal procedure in the early 1820s was to demand that accused Indians be surrendered by tribal leaders. If the chiefs resisted, various threats, military expeditions, seizure of hostages, or rewards to cooperative Indians generally achieved the purpose.

To American authorities, the murder and scalping of John Blottenburgh and Clement Attley Riggs, two unarmed soldiers on a woodcutting detail, appeared a wantonly savage act. Leaders of the suspected Winnebago bands were summoned and ordered to surrender the culprits. Calhoun directed Cass and Indian Agent Richard Graham to clarify to Winnebago leaders that such atrocities would not be regarded with impunity. Unless the chiefs demonstrated their loyalty by promptly surrendering the "wicked authors" of the crime, the government would consider the chiefs as participants in guilt, and the entire Winnebago nation would be "made to feel the just vengeance and retribution of the Government." Calhoun asserted that it was the responsibility of the chiefs to avert "disastrous consequences and annihilation." Indian gestures of friendship, while expected, were insufficient; the murderers had to be handed over to federal authorities.

Calhoun, however, urged restraint. Rather than overreact to frontier reports of a contemplated general Winnebago attack on Fort Armstrong, he described the killings as the work of a few individuals acting "without the knowledge or authority of the Chiefs." The latter, he correctly predicted, would "disavow it, or any hostility on the part of their nation towards the United States, but take the most prompt and active measures to cause the perpetrators to be arrested and delivered for punishment." 
Lieutenant Colonel Henry Leavenworth
Although his frontier commanders ─ impatient with slow-moving courts and aware of the difficulties of assembling creditable witnesses ─ often preferred summary execution by firing squad, Calhoun ordered that the accused Winnebagos be transferred to civil authorities. Lieutenant Colonel Henry Leavenworth, who had been summoned from Fort Snelling for the investigation, grumbled: "It would have been better to have executed them and then have tried them ─ If they are tried, they must be executed, or we shall feel the weight of the Winnebago Tomahawk." 

To ensure compliance, the Army seized four Winnebagos as hostages. They were released when the chiefs, as promised, brought three men to Prairie du Chien, "preceded by a white flag, and attended by a large concourse of the tribe." The next day Prairie du Chien justices of the peace interrogated the three Indians while the chiefs looked on. 

All three of the prisoners belonged to Winnebago bands on the Rock River. In the spring of 1820, they had set out for Fort Armstrong, ostensibly as traders. Sometimes en route, the eldest, Chewachera [or Chewacuhra], implored the other two's assistance in avenging the death of his sister and her husband, who the Indians claimed was attacked and left to drown by American soldiers. One of the warriors was as young as fifteen, and the other was Chewachera's nephew and therefore bound by custom to obey his commands. Jerago, the youngest of the trio, said that he resisted because he knew the act's consequences and their agent would be angry. He cried and begged the others to "forget our Relations that the Americans had killed." After unsuccessfully attempting to wrest the guns from his companions, he fired shots to alert his mother and thwart the plan. Jerago would not disavow his loyalty to his fellow tribesmen in yielding to interrogation. "They went off and killed two soldiers," he said. "I did not wish to be drawn into this business, but since I have had Irons put upon my hands, which hurts me, I will remain with them."

According to stories told separately by each prisoner, there had been no elaborate scheme for ambushing officers at the fort; the act was premeditated only one day. Wading from their camp on the east bank of the river to the island on which the fort stood, the three determined to lie in wait for someone to come out. If no one appeared after a considerable time, they resolved to forego revenge and simply enter the fort, shake hands, and have a friendly smoke ─ the original preference of the two younger men. But when Blottenburgh and Riggs appeared, the warriors shot them, and Chewachera bashed their heads with the back of an axe and scalped them. The three headed back up Rock River without stopping to stretch the scalps on a hoop. En route to their village, they were taunted by their tribesmen for their rash act. Chewachera and his nephew Whorahjinka were "so much cursed" at their lodge that they unceremoniously threw away the Soldiers' scalps.

Winnebago society placed restrictions on individuals who wished to seek retribution. Permission had to be secured from the chiefs. Warriors who failed to receive that permission, or refused to pursue it, subjected themselves to the only restrictive measures that the chief and the community could adopt ─ temporary loss of prestige, the sort of treatment suffered by the three Winnebago.

Chewachera openly admitted his guilt. He absolved the other two of murderous intent and corroborated their versions of the affair. He did, however, amplify his reasons for revenge:

I knew that my sister had been ill-used below I did not think any more of that. I never had any ill intentions until I heard that my sister had been abused ─ Women ought to be respected. My Father did not encourage any person to use women ill. But my sister had been ill-treated. . . and when I came near the place where it was done, I lost my senses and did a bad act I have done it I delivered up my body to the Chiefs what more can I say.

Whorahjinka added that when they were leaving their lodges, the women had cried on behalf of the slain relatives, and the recollection of that scene helped to trigger the killing of the soldiers. Twice he tried to prevent the contemplated act but finally acquiesced because "my body belonged to my Uncle. I was obliged to do as he did or told me to do."

In an effort to ascertain the facts and project an impartial posture, White authorities attested to the veracity of the interpreters used in the proceedings. One of them, an Indian of an unspecified tribe known as Fast Walker, satisfied the whites before he was sworn in that he knew the purpose and obligations attached to an oath, stating that the Great Spirit would not forgive him ─ even beyond the grave ─ should he lie under oath. When asked the customary way in which to bind an Indian's word, Fast Walker replied, "By laying the hand on a Medicine Sack, a ball or an arrow and saying, 'May my Medicine prove bad, or may the ball or the arrow pierce my heart if I tell a lie.' " Rather than request a medicine bag for his own swearing-in, he told the whites: "The Americans know more than the Indians. I see you have a book there you say is the word of God (or the heart of God). I believe it and will attest upon it as you do."

Leavenworth conducted the interrogation before an assemblage of Rock River Winnebago. Referring to Chewachera's accusations, Leavenworth insisted that the matter had been looked into by Nicholas Boilvin, the United States Indian agent at Prairie du Chien. Boilvin, after talking to a man who had buried the Winnebago couple, reported that although one of the bodies bore marks that might have been attributed to an accident, neither body had broken bones, nor was there evidence that the woman had been assaulted. He said they drowned after falling through the ice. Leavenworth dismissed the charges against the Americans as a lie sung in the Indians' ears by "some bad bird." He claimed that two years had elapsed since the disputed incident and that it was as unreasonable for Winnebago to kill his young men at Rock Island in retaliation for those drowning victims as it would be for him now to kill Winnebago at Prairie La Crosse or Black River in response to the murders of the soldiers.

As on previous occasions, Leavenworth promised that if tribal leaders reported to him any cases of Americans killing Winnebago, he would punish the perpetrators. In a rhetorical flourish that his listeners could not have taken seriously, the Colonel claimed that if his own Father or brother killed an Indian, he would spare no effort to have him hanged, and "such are the sentiments of every white man."

In order to demonstrate "our love of justice [and] that we do not wish to harm the innocent," the authorities released Jerago after concluding that he had done everything possible to prevent the crime. That magnanimous gesture, Leavenworth warned, should not be misconstrued; justice also required that the guilty be punished. Glossing over such Winnebago concepts of justice as payment to relatives of victims, Leavenworth asserted that the "unfortunate young men" had "committed a crime which by your laws subject them to the punishment of death." "Our laws," he concluded, "are the same."

Commending the Winnebago for their good faith in surrendering the murderers and lifting the cloud of distrust that hung over their nation, Leavenworth reminded them that for several years the Rock River bands had had had a bad reputation among whites. He hoped that their future conduct would disprove that negative appraisal. Finally, he warned against asking for the release of the two remaining prisoners, who, in his opinion, deserved the death penalty. In fact, he saw no reason why the Winnebago did not execute those of their nation who killed whites.

Apparently, the Winnebago made threats when they learned that only Jerago would be returned. The delegation had the temerity to tell Leavenworth that he should release the others for the sake of his "Forts and children." Leavenworth scolded them:

What do you mean by that? Is it war? If war serves your intention, you should have kept the prisoners and not given them up. Neither my Forts nor my soldiers are afraid of war ─ they are always ready and would be pleased with it if the Winnebagos wish it. You behaved like men in giving up the prisoners, but in asking me to release them again, you act like old women asking for bread.

The Colonel claimed to have made no promises regarding Chewachera and Whorahjinka. He judged that they were guilty and that Jerago was innocent. Leavenworth instructed the delegation to close any pending business with their agent and return to their villages. He expected assurances that the chiefs would restrain their men.

After meeting in the council, Shungapaw spoke for the Indians. He wished to know when Leavenworth was leaving to go upriver so that the band could accompany him. The suspicious Colonel refused to reveal his plans beyond saying that he intended to hold the prisoners until receiving orders from the President. Upon noticing that Shungapaw no longer wore an American medal (a gift of friendship), Leavenworth accused the Winnebago of mischievous intent. "When you are desirous of any favor, you are very good Americans and appear to be proud of wearing their medals," he said, "but when your wishes are disappointed, you throw them aside." Indeed, he warned them that a watchful eye would be kept upon them because he expected to hear of more murders. Next time, the Americans would not await a surrender; annihilation would be the result for those who began warfare. Shungapaw denied any evil intention and explained that he had given his medal to the brother of one of the prisoners in order to assuage his grief. He maintained that neither the chiefs nor the warriors present had mentioned war and that all were satisfied that their "Great Father, the President," would decide the prisoners' fate.

Reporting to Calhoun after a tour through Winnebago country, Governor Cass expressed satisfaction with Leavenworth's "wise and decisive" handling of matters. The Indians had learned a lesson, said Cass, and the United States should regret nothing except the "untimely fate of the soldiers." Commenting on the likelihood of future complaints, Cass was confident, after talking with men he termed principal Winnebago chiefs, that only the "intemperate passions of Individuals" would again produce such conduct. The chiefs, he believed, would disavow violent acts and would surrender offenders as quickly "as the relaxed state of their Government" would permit.

Leavenworth took the prisoners from Rock Island to Edwardsville in the autumn of 1820. From there, they were transferred to the jail at Belleville. The trial finally took place on May 12, 1821, after Chewachera and Whorahjinka had been held for nearly a year. Jacob Hough, a soldier from Fort Armstrong, testified that he and Andrew Peeling found the bodies of Blottenburgh and Riggs less than a mile from the fort. The two victims had been shot and scalped, and Blottenburgh was hacked in the left side with an axe. Jerago, having been called to testify, told the same story he had related in the earlier interrogation. The jury took only half an hour to reach a verdict of guilty. The following day Chewachera and Whorahjinka were sentenced to death by hanging; the execution was set for mid-July.

The physical condition of the two prisoners was a matter of grave concern both in the Illinois press and among their fellow Winnebago. According to one account, the two had been "hearty, robust men" in the fall of 1820 but were "scarcely able to stand or move by the trial." Upon inquiry by Leavenworth and others, the Indians made specific complaints about their treatment in jail during the winter. According to their statements, they had neither fire nor bedding and were made to sleep on a hard floor. Their daily rations consisted of "cornbread of the size of a small biscuit and half that quantity of meat." On one occasion, they received no food or water for three days and nights. The Illinois Intelligence called for an investigation in the belief that the allegations of inhumanity were exaggerated. One editorialist asked rhetorically: 

Do we call ourselves a Christian nation: Do we boast of our humanity ─ our justice? Were these men in the custody of American people and American laws? If this is true, in what do our prisons differ from those of the Spanish Inquisition or ourselves from nations we are pleased to call barbarous and uncivilized?

William A. Beaird, sheriff of St. Clair County and keeper of the Belleville jail, was accused of mistreating the Winnebago prisoners. He responded to the charges by writing a letter to the newspaper "to teach editors not to injure the characters of innocent persons on the false statements of murdering Indians." In reply to the sheriff, the editor reminded readers that the Indians' statements were not false merely because of their source and that at least one of the two men might still be vindicated of the murder charge. Sheriff Beaird maintained that the prisoners were kept in a thick-walled dungeon in which a fire would have been impossible but through which no cold drafts could penetrate. There was no suggestion, he said, that the Indians be moved near a fireplace. He labeled the charge regarding the bedding "a most absolute falsity" because Indian Agent Thomas Forsyth, wintering in St. Louis, had provided two blankets and two buffalo robes. Although Beaird said the prisoners had not fared well over the winter, he claimed they had more food than they could eat. Noticing that during the incarceration, one "dangerously. . . broke out in large sores, and bleeding at the nose, toothache, and scurvy," Beaird frequently had ordered that soup be prepared as "an extra dainty." The unaccustomed salt provision and their "close confinement in a very tight prison" caused what he called their "meager appearance."

Following the sentencing, Naw Kaw Carmani, the last Winnebago claiming a tribal-wide chieftainship, spoke to the assemblage. Although he would live until after 1830, Naw Kaw was already in his late eighties. In an opening litany of stock phrases, he claimed to be an American, pleading by the Great Spirit that he stood sincerely for peace, and stated that he had less power in his nation than the judge who had just pronounced the sentence. Then bitterness came through in his closing remarks:

When I came down here, I had hoped to find that Che-wa-cha-rah and Who-rah-jin-kah had been better treated, but my heart is oppressed at the cruelty that they have received. I did hope that pity would have been found for them. . . . But let peace be between us. I look up to our Great Father as I do to the Great Spirit for protection.

My Father ─ I came here to see justice, but find none ─ Cah-rah-mah-ree is honest, speaks what he thinks, and shakes you by the hand for the last time.

A report of the trial and verdict was sent to Washington. President James Monroe approved of the sentences meted out to the "misguided" Winnebago, but he had reservations regarding the pre-trial examinations of the accused. As a result, Secretary of War Calhoun was instructed to send word of a temporary reprieve for Whorahjinka. That decision showed at least some sensitivity to Indian perceptions of the circumstances. Whorahjinka's "extreme youth" certainly figured into the move, but so too did an appreciation that he acted as the nephew of Chewachera, "to whom he appeared to consider his body to belong and that he was of course bound to do whatever he told him to do." Whorahjinka's execution date was delayed to August 14, and Calhoun queried William Clark about the impact on the Winnebago of a full presidential pardon. In late June, the enfeebled Chewachera died in prison.

Presidential reprieve proved a false hope, for Leavenworth, who served as a prosecutor in the trial, was convinced that Whorahjinka's guilt was indisputable. While admitting that the Indians had been mistreated in captivity, Leavenworth felt positive that the tribes would "harbor motives of revenge" if Whorahjinka were released. On the expiration of the reprieve, Whorahjinka was hanged at Kaskaskia.

Agent Forsyth confirmed the predicted hostile mood of the Winnebago when he requested that his quarters be located adjacent to Fort Armstrong, as the Winnebago were "by no means well intended, on account (as they say) of the treatment their two men experienced previous to their trial." Fearful of Winnebago's revenge, American policymakers followed the old Anglo-Saxon custom (closely paralleling Indian practice) of making a wergild, or payment, in order to appease the victims' relatives and defuse any desire for retaliation. Because the bands were living near Thomas Forsyth's agency (although not within his jurisdiction), the War Department instructed him to make moderate compensation to the relatives of the two dead Indians "to relieve [them] from the distress which . . . they have suffered."

The Fort Armstrong murders and the resulting trial of the Winnebago prisoners illustrate the extent to which Indians of Illinois complied outwardly with the white man's system of justice. Yet their submission to Anglo-American legal concepts was structured whenever possible with an eye to conformity with their own traditionalism. 

Through the 1820s, continuing American penetration of the Winnebago domain provoked a variety of sporadic responses by Winnebago individuals and bands. Although initially, no tribal-wide policy underlay such responses, Americans insisted that a well-coordinated tribal policy existed. It thus became increasingly difficult for the Indians to practice traditional customs involving justice and land tenure, especially when confronted by the invasions of lead miners. 
The 1825 council at Prairie du Chien at which William Clark and Lewis Cass presented the treaty establishing intertribal boundaries for eleven Michigan Territory tribes. Artist James Otto Lewis, who attended the council, painted this scene.


In 1825 the United States imposed the first regional intertribal boundary treaty. In 1827, the so-called "Winnebago War" was declared by whites in reaction to a raid similar to the Fort Armstrong affair. The treaty ending that conflict gave the government the opportunity to impose the first actual cession of Winnebago lands in Illinois and Wisconsin.

Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, 1980.
Edited by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.