Embers of Change: How Two Infernos Molded Modern Chicago

The embers of disaster were already smoldering in Chicago before O'Leary's cow took the blame. On the night of October 7, 1871, a fire erupted in a lumber yard on the West Side. This blaze, now known as the "Saturday Night Fire," quickly grew into a hungry monster, devouring homes, businesses, and everything in its path.

The Saturday Night Fire Map.

 

Firefighters battled tirelessly against the flames, pushing themselves to the brink of exhaustion. After two days, they managed to contain the Saturday Night Fire, but the victory was bittersweet. The city was left wounded, its firefighters drained, and its resources stretched thin.

The O'Leary Spark

The following evening, October 8, a fire ignited in a barn on the O'Leary property. While the exact cause remains shrouded in mystery, Catherine O'Leary's cow, whose name is unknown, became the scapegoat, forever etched into the folklore of the Great Chicago Fire.

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Mrs. Catherine O'Leary and the Cow were exonerated (but not Mr. Patrick O'Leary) from starting the 1871 Chicago Fire. The Resolution was signed by Mayor Richard M. Daley and the City Council of Chicago on September 10, 1997.

The city's weary fire brigade responded as quickly as possible, still reeling from the previous night's ordeal. But the fire, fueled by dry conditions and strong winds, had already taken hold. It rapidly transformed into a raging conflagration, consuming everything in its path with terrifying speed.

A City Ablaze

The Great Chicago Fire raged for three days, painting the night sky with apocalyptic orange, red, and yellow hues. The city's wooden structures became kindling, feeding the fire's insatiable appetite. The inferno spared little, leaving a trail of devastation that stretched for miles.

Over 300 people lost their lives in the blaze, and countless more were left homeless. The heart of Chicago had been reduced to ashes, a haunting reminder of the destructive power of nature.

Rebirth from the Ashes

In the aftermath of this dual disaster, Chicago faced a monumental challenge. Yet, a spirit of resilience and determination rose from the ashes of tragedy. The city rebuilt itself, emerging more determined and vibrant than ever.

The Great Chicago Fire also spurred advancements in fire safety and urban planning. The introduction of fire hydrants, stricter building codes, and the creation of a professional fire department all emerged as a direct response to the devastation.

Chicago Shelter Cottages - Mass construction of Kit houses for 1871 Fire Victims.

Two Fires, One Legacy

While the Saturday Night Fire fades into the shadow of its more infamous successor, its impact on the Great Chicago Fire cannot be ignored. It weakened the city's defenses, leaving it vulnerable to the second, more devastating blow, which burned for 17 hours.

Together, these two fires shaped Chicago's destiny. They are a reminder of the fragility of human existence and the enduring power of the human spirit to rebuild and overcome.

Afterword

The "Saturday Night Fire" left Chicago with severely compromised defenses. After a grueling seventeen-hour battle against the city's worst fire, the fire department was on the brink of collapse. Hoses were in tatters, coal supplies were running dangerously low, and the William James Steamer №3, a crucial piece of equipment, was damaged beyond repair. The loss of the Clybourne hose cart and the exhaustion of the 190 firefighters, who were struggling with smoke poisoning, swollen eyes, dehydration, and burns, left the city's firefighting capabilities in shambles. Citizens filled buckets of water for the horses to drink and pour over them to cool them off. A few women gave the dirtiest horses baths first. And, as reported, those horses were grateful.  

William James Steamer Number 3

This depletion of resources and personnel undoubtedly contributed to the rapid spread and catastrophic damage caused by the Great Chicago Fire, which erupted mere hours later. If the Saturday Night Fire had not occurred, the firefighters would have been better equipped and rested to face the subsequent blaze, potentially sparing the city from some of the devastation that followed.

Chicago Shelter Cottages - Mass construction of Kit houses for 1871 Fire Victims.

This Article was Critiqued by "Meta AI."

Dr. Gale, your article is well-written and engaging, providing a clear and concise account of the two fires that shaped modern Chicago. Here are some specific things you do well:

• You set the scene effectively, transporting the reader to the time and place of the fires.
• You provide a clear structure, dividing the article into logical sections that flow smoothly.
• You use vivid language and imagery to describe the fires and their impact.
  
  
• You include interesting historical details and context, such as the exoneration of Mrs. O'Leary and her cow.
• You highlight the significance of the fires in shaping Chicago's future, including advancements in fire safety and urban planning.
• Overall, your article is informative, well-organized, and easy to follow. Great job!

Copyright © 2024. Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.  U.S.A  All Rights Reserved.

What Happened to all the Alewives in Lake Michigan?

Alewives are small fish native to saltwater but migrate to freshwater rivers and streams to spawn. They are also called River Herring, Sawbelly, Gaspereau, and Kyak. Alewives are a type of herring similar to Atlantic herring and are a good source of protein and omega-3s.

Small Alewive (Herrings) Quickly Grow to Maturity.

Alewives, a non-native species, entered the Great Lakes through canals, lacking natural predators, allowing their numbers to explode.

In the 1960s, the government began a program to restore the balance of the Great Lakes ecosystem. With the intentional introduction of predators to control the exploding alewife population, non-native salmon species like Coho and Chinook were introduced into the Great Lakes. These salmon preyed heavily on alewives, bringing their numbers down significantly.

Alewives primarily fed on zooplankton. A reduction of zooplankton populations in Lake Michigan due to invasive zebra and quagga mussels also contributed to their decline by limiting their food supply.

Eventually, the alewife population reached a more balanced level within the Lake Michigan ecosystem. While die-offs still can occur, they are far less frequent and much smaller than the massive beaching events of the 1950s through the 60s.

Alewives are sensitive to sudden temperature changes. Cold weather snaps following warmer periods could shock massive numbers of fish, leading to die-offs. 

Thousands of alewives cover a beach near downtown Chicago after being washed ashore by Easterly winds. Migrants from salt water, the fish pack Lake Michigan. After they spawn, they die. Chicago Park District crews have the messy, smelly job of clearing the beaches and freshening the air.

The sheer vastness of their population meant that these die-offs resulted in millions of dead fish washing ashore, creating a foul-smelling mess on Chicago's beaches.

Alewives are still present in the Great Lakes but in much lower numbers.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Elizabeth, Illinois, home to the Apple River Fort State Historic Site.

The Village of Elizabeth, population 695 (2022), was incorporated in 1868. It is located in the center of the rolling hill country of Jo Daviess County in northwestern Illinois. 

In the 1820s, rich lead deposits were discovered in the Galena region in northwestern Illinois. This attracted miners and settlers, leading to the growth of small communities. The Apple River Settlement was established in 1827. Several families set up homes, stores, and a general store that formed the core of the settlement.

President Andrew Jackson's administration supported a series of actions against the Indians, including the Indian Removal Act of 1830. 

Apple River Fort State Historic Site, 311 East Myrtle Street, Elizabeth, Illinois.

Black Hawk, a leader of the Sauk, disputed the validity of the treaties and attempted to return to their ancestral lands in Illinois. Conflicts erupt between settlers and Black Hawk's band. Amidst rising fear in 1832, area settlers built the Apple River fort in less than a week. Along with other fortifications hastily built in the region, they all served as shelters during the war.

Black Hawk led a resistance movement against forced removal from their ancestral lands. The tribes included the Sauk (Sac), Meskwaki (Fox), Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), and Kickapoo warriors.

Black Hawk's warriors attack the Apple River Fort, resulting in an hour-long battle (Battle of Apple River Fort; June 1832). The settlers successfully defended the fort, leading Black Hawk's forces to withdraw. This battle is notable as one of the few forts directly confronted by Black Hawk.

Following the Black Hawk War (September 21, 1832), the "Treaty with the Sac and Fox Indians" (sometimes referred to as the Black Hawk Purchase) resulted in a significant cession of land east of the Mississippi River by the Sac and Fox tribes to the US government, then move to a reservation in Iowa. The Sac and Fox Nation in Iowa, now known as the Mesquakie Indian Settlement, purchased back a portion of their ancestral land in the 19th century. This area is called Meskwakiinaki.

Around 1847, the fort was dismantled, and its timbers were used to construct a barn.

The Three Elizabeths Folklore

As legend has it, three women, all named Elizabeth, stood shoulder-to-shoulder, successfully defending the Apple River Fort during the 1832 Black Hawk War. In their honor, what had been known as the Apple River Settlement was renamed  the village of Elizabeth.

 

The anecdote states that three women, all named Elizabeth, bravely defended the Apple River Fort during the Black Hawk War in 1832. 

• Elizabeth Armstrong was particularly praised for her leadership and courage, motivating and assisting those inside the fort.
• Elizabeth Van Volkenburg (incorrect: Von Voltinburg)
• Elizabeth Winters. 

These women undoubtedly played important roles. They assisted in helping anyway they could. Reloading weapons, molding musket balls, nursing, etc. They showed unwavering resolve during the attack.

Today's Elizabeth is home to five museums, numerous gift shops, the largest antique mall in northwestern Illinois, and the Apple River Fort State Historic Site. Visit the Chicago Great Western Railway Depot Museum and the Elizabeth History Museum. 

Elizabeth has been described as the "undiscovered treasure" of northwestern Illinois.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

President Abraham Lincoln's Personal Valet, William Henry Johnson, a free Negro.

William Henry Johnson (c1835-1864), a free Negro, played a multifaceted role in the life of President Abraham Lincoln. While most remembered as Lincoln's valet, Johnson's service encompassed much more.

Details about Johnson's early life are scarce, but historical estimates place his birth around 1835. We know that Johnson's path first crossed Lincoln's in Springfield, Illinois, where he began working as Lincoln's barber and valet around 1860. Johnson proved to be a trusted and valuable household member, attending to Lincoln's grooming needs and likely running errands.

This trust became even more crucial when Abraham Lincoln secured the presidency. In 1861, as Lincoln prepared for his inauguration in Washington D.C., the nation was embroiled in the Civil War. An assassination plot loomed, prompting a secret journey to the capital. Johnson, demonstrating his loyalty, accompanied Lincoln on this perilous trip.

Once in Washington, Johnson's duties expanded beyond barbering and valeting. The White House staff, particularly other servants, held prejudiced views and often ostracized Johnson due to his darker complexion. Lincoln valued Johnson's dedication and entrusted him with various tasks despite this. Johnson became a butler and firekeeper and even helped Lincoln with errands and messages. He was, in essence, Lincoln's right-hand man, a constant presence attending to the President's needs.

Johnson's role extended beyond the White House. When Lincoln delivered the famed Gettysburg Address, Johnson was by his side on November 19, 1863. Their bond remained strong throughout the war, and Lincoln even intervened to secure Johnson a position in the Treasury Department, likely because Johnson faced prejudice from some White House staff.

This loyalty proved to be a two-way street. In November 1863, Lincoln fell ill with smallpox. Johnson, ever devoted, tirelessly nursed the President back to health. Tragically, Johnson himself contracted smallpox and succumbed to it on January 28, 1864. 

Lincoln had William Henry Johnson buried on the Arlington Mansion grounds, now Arlington National Cemetery, and personally paid all the expenses for his funeral services.

William Henry Johnson's life story transcends the simple title of "valet."  He was a trusted confidante, a bodyguard, and a friend to Abraham Lincoln during a period of immense national upheaval. Despite facing prejudice, Johnson's dedication and service left a lasting mark on the President and offered a glimpse into the complex dynamics of the White House during the Civil War.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Elias Kent Kane was a key figure in the constitutional convention that drafted Illinois' constitution in 1818.

Elias Kent Kane left a lasting mark on the state of Illinois. Born in New York City in 1794, Kane pursued a legal education at Yale University. Shortly after graduating, he ventured west, finding himself in Nashville, Tennessee, for a brief period before moving on to Kaskaskia, then the capital of the Illinois Territory, in 1814. Kane's arrival proved fortuitous as he was quickly elevated to a territorial judge position, marking the beginning of an influential political career.

As Illinois moved toward statehood in 1818, Kane was a central delegate to the state's constitutional convention. He became a key figure in shaping the state's fundamental laws and earned the nickname "Father of the Illinois Constitution." In the same year, Kane was appointed Illinois' first Secretary of State. Ever ambitious, Kane won election to the United States Senate in 1824, serving as a Democratic senator until his untimely death in 1835.

Elias Kent Kane is buried in Evergreen Cemetery, at 501 West Holmes Street, Chester, Illinois, in the Kane family plot. The cenotaph[1] monument is located at the Congressional Cemetery at 1801 East Street SE, Washington, D.C., which was erected in Kane's honor because he died while serving in office as a United States Senator from Illinois.

Throughout his political career, Kane remained engaged in Illinois affairs and wielded power as part of an influential political faction. While not without controversy, his work helped to lay the foundations of government in the newly established state. Kane's legacy includes Kane County, Illinois, formed in his honor a year after his passing. Though initially buried in a family cemetery, Kane's remains were later reinterred in Evergreen Cemetery, Chester, Illinois. A cenotaph[1] stands in his honor at Washington's Congressional Cemetery.

Early Life and Career

Born: June 7, 1794, New York City

Education: Graduated from Yale College in 1813

Initial Career: Briefly practiced law in Nashville, Tennessee, before moving to Kaskaskia, Illinois Territory in 1814. He was appointed as a territorial judge almost immediately.

Move to Illinois: Relocated to Kaskaskia, Illinois Territory in 1814 and was quickly appointed a territorial judge.

Role in Illinois Statehood

Constitutional Convention: A pivotal delegate to the 1818 convention that drafted the Illinois State Constitution.

First Secretary of State: Kane held the first-ever position as Secretary of State of Illinois from 1818 to 1824.

U.S. Senate: Elected to the U.S. Senate in 1824, serving from 1825 until he died in 1835. He was reelected in 1831.

First Secretary of State (1818-1824): Kane held the first-ever position as Secretary of State of Illinois.

U.S. Senator (1825-1835): Elected as a Democratic-Republican (later Jacksonian Democrat) to the U.S. Senate, where he served for two terms.

Political Views and Legacy

Democratic Party: A member of the Jacksonian Democratic Party.

Advocate of Internal Improvements: Kane championed infrastructure development in Illinois, supporting projects like the Illinois and Michigan Canal.

Land Policy: Played a significant role in shaping land policy in Illinois.

Kane County: Though he never lived within its borders, Kane County, Illinois, was named in his honor in 1836.

Jacksonian Democrat: Kane was a strong supporter of President Andrew Jackson.

Advocate of Internal Improvements: Kane championed infrastructure development in Illinois, supporting projects like the Illinois and Michigan Canal.

Controversial Figure: His political alliances and dealings made him a somewhat controversial figure. Some historians argue he used his positions for personal and political gain.

Death and Burial

Died: December 12, 1835, in Washington, D.C., at age 41.

Burial: Initially interred in a family cemetery, then reinterred at Evergreen Cemetery, Chester, Illinois.

Kane County, Illinois: The county is named in his honor.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

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[1] A cenotaph is a monument built to honor a person or group of people whose remains lie elsewhere. The word comes from the Greek "kenos taphos," meaning "empty tomb."

Daniel Pope Cook (Congressman, landowner).

Daniel Pope Cook, known as the "Champion of Illinois Statehood," was a pivotal figure in Illinois' journey from territory to state. 

Daniel Pope Cook

A young lawyer and landowner in early Springfield, Cook tirelessly advocated for statehood, writing persuasive articles and prodding the Illinois territorial legislature to take action.  His efforts, including lobbying in Washington D.C., helped secure the Northwest Ordinance with its anti-slavery provisions, laying the groundwork for Illinois' future. After statehood, Cook served as Illinois' first Attorney General and later represented the state in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1819 to 1827. His legacy is honored through Cook County, Illinois, named in his memory, and his influence is further seen in his work on a diplomatic mission to Cuba and his co-ownership of the Illinois Intelligencer newspaper.

Daniel Pope Cook was born in Kentucky in 1794 and moved to Kaskaskia, Illinois, in 1815. There, he studied law under his uncle, Nathanial Pope, the U.S. congressman for the Illinois Territory. Cook was also mentored by his father-in-law, territorial Governor, and later state governor, Ninian Edwards.

Cook was named the territory's first auditor general in 1816, but soon after that, he went to Washington, D.C., to further his political career. President Monroe sent him on to London with dispatches for John Quincy Adams.

Cook returned to Illinois in November of 1817 and took it upon himself to write a very persuasive article for the newspaper in Edwardsville, which he co-owned, explaining why Illinois should become a state instead of a territory. The territorial legislature took up the call and, by December 10, sent off its appeal for statehood to Congress, where Nathanial Pope presented the document.

The legal process for statehood was finalized on December 3, 1818, making Illinois the 21st state of the union. Cook was elected Illinois' second representative in Congress after statehood and was re-elected three times. At the time, Illinois allowed only one representative; as that representative, Cook significantly impacted legislation affecting the state.

Daniel Pope Cook married Julia Catherine Edwards, daughter of Ninian and Elvira Edwards, on May 21, 1821. They had one child, John Cook (sometimes reported as John Pope Cook). He was only 2 years old when his father died in 1827. Julia Cook died three years later, and John Cook was raised by his grandparents, Ninian and Elvira Edwards.

With statehood achieved and a treaty signed with indigenous tribes, numerous settlers were drawn into the central part of the state, known as "the Sangamo country." The area was known for well-drained prairies outlined by streams, woodlands with plentiful wildlife, and productive soil. The area remained federal land until surveys were completed and a land office opened for sales in 1823.

Sangamon County (much more significant than today) was created in 1821, and Cook took an interest in the newly created county. He had a cabin built and 10 acres of land plowed, thus making known his desire to purchase land.

Elijah Iles had built a store in the tiny Springfield community, designated the temporary county seat, and is credited with a movement to establish a platted town. Iles set about agreeing with other settlers not to bid against him and three other men at the land sales set for November 6, 1823.

Cook apparently intended to be one of the other three original buyers, along with John Kelley and John Taylor, as implied in an October 21, 1823, letter from Iles to Cook.

However, the letter brought terrible news. Kelley had died, and the quarter section of land Taylor was to buy had been set aside as "seminary land," the sale of which was reserved and profits set aside for higher education.

According to the letter, Cook also had dropped out of the plan, presumably because he was to run for a third term in Congress. The letter tells Cook, "Your improvement now goes in the name of Enos." 

A document written by Pascal P. Enos later records that Cook had made improvements to the land, which Enos evidently purchased through a local intermediary, maybe Iles.

On November 7, 1823, Iles, Enos, and Thomas Cox (replacing Kelley) purchased three planned quarter sections of land and platted a town. Taylor finally bought his quarter section a year late after a letter to the Governor resulted in its re-designation.

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Cook’s role in the development of Springfield confused the writers of an early county history and of a number of historical articles, all of which list Cook as one of the city’s four original proprietors. As explained above, his interest was real, but deed records do not show Cook buying land then.

Cook visited the Sangamo area at least once, if not more often, as verified by an article in the Edwardsville Spectator on July 12, 1823. The article says Cook and Gov. Edward Coles were invited to the Springfield area for a Fourth of July celebration. Toasts were given to the two men, and then Cook gave a toast that was quoted in the newspaper. Iles was identified as another of those present. Unfortunately, what Iles and Cook may have discussed about a future town or what other meetings they may have had is unknown.

1855 Springfield map shows Cook's land holdings in Springfield, Illinois. His purchases from Iles are in blue; those from Enos are in green. Cox purchase not shown.

In 1826, after losing his bid for a fifth term in Congress, Cook again showed an interest in Springfield. This time, he bought land from Iles, Enos and Cox. In February, he purchased from Enos seven town lots and a 16¼-acre outlot for $50, along with three town lots and another 16¼-acre outlot, also for $50, from Iles. In May 1827, Cook paid Cox $100 for a 26-acre tract.

Although respected, intelligent, politically astute, sociable, and an eloquent speaker, Cook was physically frail. He died at age 33 on October 16, 1827. He was memorialized four years later when Cook County was named.

In Springfield, Daniel Pope Cook is remembered by a street name. In 1836, Iles filed the plat for a 27-block addition to Springfield in anticipation of the town becoming the state capital. He named its east/west streets Market, Jackson, Edwards, and Cook.

Market (today's Capitol Avenue) got that name because Iles set aside an area between Ninth and Tenth Streets for a vendor market. Iles presumably chose Jackson following the original town plan's pattern of using presidents' names; Andrew Jackson was President then. Edwards Street honored Ninian Edwards.

Finally, Iles named a street after the man whose legislative work helped advance Illinois and with whom he had had a personal acquaintance: the late Daniel Pope Cook.

After Daniel Cook's death, his Springfield land was auctioned to pay a debt. It was purchased by the widow Elvira Edwards. At Elvira's death in 1839, her son, Benjamin S. Edwards and grandson, John P. Cook, were heirs to the land.

Daniel P. Cook's name does appear on the James L. Lamb obelisk. (Only parts of the name are now readable; the other information given is illegible.) Why is Cook's name on the Lamb family marker? Lamb's daughter Susan married Daniel Cook's son, John Pope Cook. John and Susan Lamb Cook have individual stones at their graves in the Lamb family plot. Cook is memorialized at Oak Ridge but not buried there.

The Cook name also lived on in Springfield through Daniel Cook's only son, John Cook, a Civil War brigadier general and mayor of Springfield, and his grandsons, John Crammer, James L. and William J. Cook.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

The New Cook County Flag, Explained. (2021)

In celebration and recognition of the 190th anniversary (2021) of the founding of Cook County, the Cook County Board of Commissioners unanimously voted to create a contest to redesign Cook County's flag in December 2019.

The Flag Advisory Panel received nearly 300 submissions from students at 40 schools throughout Cook County and narrowed the field to 25 semifinalist teams in 2020.

The top 25 semifinalist teams were selected by an appointed Flag Advisory Panel. In December 2020, semifinalist teams were paired with volunteer professional design mentors to clarify and refine the students' artwork, symbolism, and descriptions. The Flag Advisory Panel selected the top six finalist flag designs based on composition and representation in July 2021. 

The "I Will" flag, designed by Drew Duffy and Martin Burciaga, has been named the official new flag of Cook County. It's a representation of our lands, culture, history, and the core values that bring us together — different from a depiction of the physical boundaries that separate. The flag ensures that we reflect on the past while focusing on what we will build moving forward and continue striving to make the best County we can.

Looks Great!

The "I Will" Cook County flag. Blue symbolizes the County's great lake and rivers, green for natural lands and riverbanks, red for social change, and the blank canvas of white for the innovation that has thrived and is to come. 

The central "Y" shape highlights the regional rivers joining at Wolf Point while harkening back to the original County Seal, and the "Y" symbol of the municipal device of Chicago is used throughout Chicago to promote pride in the city.

Each of the seven points on the star represents each County region, the city of Chicago, and the Forest Preserves, which join together to symbolize residents' unity. The six stars represent six foundational moments marking who we are. The founding of Cook County. Our commitment to health care through the founding of Cook County Hospitals Stroger and Provident. Defeating disparities through the founding of the Cook County Department of Public Health. The preservation of national lands through the founding of the Cook County Forest Preserves. Cook County's historic efforts in family and juvenile justice reform and local business partnerships.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Lucy Ella Gonzales Parsons: A Force in the Fight for a Better World.

On March 7, 1942, fire engulfed the simple home of 91-year-old Lucy Gonzales Parsons at 3130 North Troy Street. It ended a life dedicated to liberating working women and men of the world from capitalism and racial oppression. 

Lucy Parsons, 1886.

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George Markstall, second husband of Lucy Parsons, blind anarchist whose first husband was hanged for his part in the Haymarket riot of 1886, died last night in Belmont Hospital of burns suffered in the same that took Mrs. Parsons' life Saturday. She was burned to death in the flat they occupied at 3130 North Troy Street. Markstall, 72 years old, tried unsuccessfully to save Mrs. Parsons from the burning building. Firemen Found him overcome in a bedroom. Mrs. Parsons, 91 years old, was found dead in the kitchen.

                                                            Source:  Chicago Tribune, Monday, March 09, 1942, pg 16.

A dynamic, militant, self-educated public speaker and writer, she became the first American negro woman to carry her crusade for socialism across the country and overseas. Lucy Ella Gonzales was born in Texas in 1851 (the year is questionable) of African-American, Mexican and Native-American ancestry and was born into slavery. The path she chose after emancipation led to conflict with the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), hard work, painful personal losses, and many nights in jail. 

Albert Parsons

In Albert Parsons, a white man whose Waco Spectator fought the KKK and demanded social and political equality for Negroes, she found a handsome, committed soul mate. The white supremacy forces in Texas considered the couple dangerous and their marriage illegal, and soon drove them from the state.

Arriving In Chicago

Lucy and Albert reached Chicago, where they began a family and threw themselves into two new militant movements, one to build strong industrial unions and the other to agitate for socialism. Lucy concentrated on organizing working women, and Albert became a famous radical organizer and speaker, one of the few important union leaders in Chicago who was not an immigrant.

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The late labor history scholar Bill Adelman wrote what is the definitive story of Haymarket. A paragraph from his description indicates the significance of the event and the horrors that all involved endured:

"The next day, martial law was declared in Chicago and throughout the nation. Anti-labor governments around the world used the Chicago incident to crush local union movements. In Chicago, labor leaders were rounded up, houses were entered without search warrants, and union newspapers were closed down. Eventually, eight men, representing a cross-section of the labor movement, were selected to be tried. Among them were (Albert) Parsons and a young carpenter named Louis Lingg, who was accused of throwing the bomb. Lingg had witnesses to prove he was over a mile away at the time. The two-month-long trial ranks as one of the most notorious in American history. The Chicago Tribune even offered to pay money to the jury if it found the eight men guilty."

In 1886, the couple and their two children stepped onto Michigan Avenue to lead 80,000 working people in the world's first May Day parade and a demand for the eight-hour workday. A new international holiday was born as more than 100,000 marched in other U.S. cities. By then, Chicago's wealthy industrial and banking elite had targeted Albert and other radical figures for elimination — to decapitate the growing union movement. A protest rally called by Albert a few days after May Day became known as the Haymarket Riot when seven Chicago policemen died in a bomb blast. No evidence has ever been found pointing to those who made or detonated the bomb, but Parsons and seven immigrant union leaders were arrested. As the corporate media whipped up patriotic and law-and-order fervor, a rigged legal system rushed the eight to convictions and death sentences.

When Lucy led the campaign to win a new trial, one Chicago official called her "more dangerous than a thousand rioters." 

Albert Parsons was framed and tried for the Haymarket bombing, which is generally attributed to a police provocateur. Parsons wasn't even present at Haymarket but cared for the couple's two children while Lucy Parsons was organizing a meeting of garment workers. After the Haymarket legal conspiracy, Lucy led the campaign to free her husband. Parson was one of eight who were convicted and one of four hanged on November 11, 1887. 

When Albert and three other comrades were executed, and four others were sentenced to prison, the movement for industrial unions and the eight-hour day was beheaded. Lucy, far from discouraged, accelerated her actions. Though she had lost Albert — and two years later lost her young daughter to illness — Lucy continued her crusade against capitalism and war and exonerated "the Haymarket Martyrs." She led poor women into affluent neighborhoods "to confront the rich on their doorsteps," challenged politicians at public meetings, marched on picket lines, and continued to address and write political tracts for workers' groups far beyond Chicago.

Lucy Parsons

Though Lucy had justified direct action against those who used violence against workers, in 1905, she suggested a very different strategy. She was one of only two women delegates (the other was Mother Jones) among the 200 men at the founding convention of the militant Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and the only woman to speak. First, she advocated a measure close to her heart when she called women "the slaves of slaves" and urged IWW delegates to fight for equality and assess underpaid women's lower union fees.

In a longer speech, she called for nonviolence that would have broad meaning for the world's protest movements. She told delegates workers shouldn't "strike and go out and starve, but to strike and remain in and take possession of the necessary property of production." A year later, Mahatma Gandhi, speaking to fellow Indians at the Johannesburg Empire Theater, advocated nonviolence to fight colonialism. However, he was still 25 years away from leading fellow Indians in nonviolent marches against India's British rulers. 

She led many demonstrations of the unemployed, homeless and hungry, including a memorable 1915 Poor People's March of the Unemployed of over 15,000 people in Chicago on January 17, 1915, where "Solidarity Forever" was sung for the first time. WWI songwriter Ralph Chaplin had finished writing "Solidarity Forever" two days prior. Marchers demanded relief from hunger and high levels of unemployment.

The demonstration also persuaded the American Federation of Labor, the Jane Addams' Hull House, and the Socialist Party to participate in a subsequent massive demonstration on February 12, 1915.

Eventually, Lucy Parsons' principle traveled to the U.S. sit-down strikers of the 1930s, Dr. King and the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s, the antiwar movements that followed, and finally to today's Arab Spring and the Occupy movements.

Lucy was an unrelenting agitator, leading picket lines and speaking to workers' audiences in the United States before trade union meetings in England. In February 1941, poor and living on a pension for the blind, the Farm Equipment Workers Union asked Lucy Parsons to give an inspirational speech to its workers, and a few months later, she rode as the guest of honor on its May Day parade float. 

Lucy Parsons

For years, Lucy Parsons was harassed by the Chicago Police Department, who often arrested her on phony charges to prevent her from speaking at mass meetings. Following her death in a suspicious fire at her home, the police and FBI confiscated all her personal papers and writings. Federal and local lawmen arrived at the gutted Parsons home to make sure her legacy died with her. They poked through the wreckage, confiscated her vast library and personal writings, and never returned them. 

Lucy Parsons' determined effort to elevate and inspire the oppressed to take command remained alive among those who knew, heard, and loved her. But few today are aware of her insights, courage, and tenacity. Despite her fertile mind, writing and oratorical skills, and striking beauty, Lucy Parsons has not found a place in school texts, social studies curricula, or Hollywood movies. Yet she has earned a prominent place in the long fight for a better life for working people, women, people of color, her country, and her world.

Her fighting spirit and contributions to improving this world will not be forgotten via the exposed history.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Scam email about Mammoth and Mastodon Ivory Sales in Illinois.

I'm writing this article, which includes a screen capture of the email below I received as a preemptive warning to Illinois residents and readers from other states.

With the poor spelling and bad English, it is most likely a scam.

Paleo-Indian artifacts are the remnants of tools, weapons, and other objects left behind by the first humans known to inhabit North America, dating from roughly 15,000 to 7,000 years ago. These fascinating objects offer invaluable insights into the lives and technologies of these early peoples despite the challenges of studying such ancient remains.

Mammoths were bigger and heavier compared to their predecessors, the mastodons, and closer in appearance and constitution to elephants today. Mastodons had cusps (grinding bumps) on their molars, which mainly distinguished them from mammoths and elephants with ridged molars.

There's currently no definitive evidence that Paleo-Indians in North America carved mammoth and mastodon ivory as artworks. While some tools and utilitarian objects made from ivory have been found, they lack clear artistic intent or decoration.

Types of artifacts:

Stone tools: These are the most common artifact type, as stone was readily available and durable. Tools include:

Clovis points: Large, lance-shaped spear points with distinctive flutes (grooves) running down the base are iconic symbols of the period.

Other projectile points: Different styles like Folsom, Scottsbluff, and Dalton points reveal regional variations and adaptation to changing environments.

Scraper tools: Used for processing hides, wood, and other materials.

Knives and blades: Employed for cutting and slicing tasks.

Non-stone artifacts: While less common, these offer valuable glimpses into other aspects of life:

Bone tools: Awls, needles, and ornaments made from animal bones suggest various practical and symbolic uses.

Fire hearths and cooking features: Evidence of controlled fire use, crucial for warmth, cooking, and toolmaking.

Rock art and engravings: Rare but potentially offering insights into spiritual beliefs and communication.

Several states have banned the sale of all "Ivory," meaning any tooth or tusk composed of ivory from any animal, including mammoths and mastodons. As of 2024, these states include ILLINOIS, California, New York, New Jersey, New Hampshire, Nevada, Oregon, and Hawaii. Other states may restrict the sale of ivory depending on the item's age, origin, and value.

Since the sale of ivory in Illinois is illegal, reporting it is crucial to protect endangered elephant populations and combat wildlife trafficking. 

Illinois General Assembly: 815 ILCS 357/ Animal Parts and Products Ban Act.

Here are some resources to report the sale:

1. Illinois Department of Natural Resources (IDNR):

Online Reporting: You can file a complaint online through the IDNR's Turn in Poachers Website: https://dnr.illinois.gov/lawenforcement/target-poachers.html

Phone: You can call the IDNR's Conservation Police hotline at 1-800-252-8934.

2. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS):

Online Reporting: You can file a report through the USFWS's National Wildlife Service Tip Line: https://www.fws.gov/wildlife-crime-tips

Phone: You can call the USFWS's Division of Law Enforcement at 1-800-847-7353.

3. Wildlife Crime Stoppers:

Online Reporting: You can submit an anonymous tip through Wildlife Crime Stoppers' Website: https://wildlifecrimestoppers.org/contact-us/

Phone: You can call Wildlife Crime Stoppers at 1-800-642-WILD (9453).

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

President Abraham Lincoln's New Year's Events.

Abraham Lincoln's New Year's events varied depending on the year and the circumstances surrounding the country. From quiet family dinners during the Civil War's early years to more formal receptions with rising optimism as the war progressed, each celebration was shaped by the unique circumstances surrounding the nation.

Here's a glimpse into Lincoln's notable New Year's:

The Presidency Sure Took Its Toll On Abraham Lincoln.

New Year's Day 1863: This New Year's marked a turning point in the Civil War. In the early hours of the morning of January 1, Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring freedom for enslaved people in Confederate states. While not a public celebration, it was a momentous occasion for the nation and a significant step towards ending slavery.

New Year's Eve 1864: This New Year's Eve brought good news. General William T. Sherman captured Savannah, Georgia, as a Christmas present to the President. Washington erupted in celebration, and Lincoln attended a reception for his cabinet, where there was much jubilation over the Union's progress.

New Year's Day 1864: The war continued, but there were glimmers of hope. Lincoln held a traditional New Year's Day reception at the White House, welcoming well-wishers and diplomats. Though the mood was somber, there was a sense of determination to see the Union through to victory.

New Year's Eve 1865: Tragically, this would be Lincoln's last New Year's. Just five days later, he was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth.

New Year's Day 1865: Lincoln's New Year's Day reception was particularly joyous, with the war nearing its end. He delivered a hopeful speech expressing his confidence in the Union's victory and the nation's future.

The Civil War overshadowed Abraham Lincoln's New Year's celebrations throughout his presidency. However, he also used these occasions to express hope for the future and to rally the nation behind the Union cause. His dedication to the country and his unwavering spirit are what we remember most about Abraham Lincoln, even in the midst of difficult times. 

It's rumored that Mary Lincoln may have baked Abraham's favorite dessert: Gingerbread with an Apple and Brown Sugar Topping.

Copyright © 2023 Dr. Neil Gale. All rights reserved.

The City of Chicago's First Foot Steps.

James Thompson surveyed Chicago, filing the plat on August 4, 1830, the official recognition of Chicago's location. Chicago was incorporated as a town on August 12, 1833, with a population of about 350.

The City is bounded on the South and West by a prairie, varying from ten to twelve miles in width, some portion of which is high and of a very superior quality. It is surrounded in every direction by a country the most productive in the world, already brought into a state of successful cultivation, and sending to its market annually a vast amount of produce of every description for sale, exchange for goods, or shipment, as the case may be. The climate is healthy and salubrious, as much so as any in the West. With a population of 4,170, the town of Chicago filed new Incorporation documents on March 4, 1837, becoming the City of Chicago.

The City is divided into six Wards. The first and second Wards, divided by Clark Street, are bounded by Chicago River's South Branch and the Lake, the first Ward lying East and the second West of Clark Street. 

The third and fourth Wards, divided by Randolph Street, are situated on the West side of the North and South Branches, the third South, and the fourth North of Randolph Street. 

The fifth and sixth Wards, divided by Clark Street, are bounded by the North Branch, Chicago River, and the Lake, the fifth being West, and the sixth East of Clark Street.

The Fort Dearborn Reservation was incorporated within the city limits in 1839,

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Grant Park Stadium was renamed Soldier Field at the urging of Chicago’s Gold Star Mothers on November 11, 1925.

Opened on October 9, 1924, Grant Park Stadium was designed by the architecture firm of Holabird & Roche. Neo-classical in style, the design pays homage to the ancient Roman Colosseum, creating a venue that exudes strength, resilience, and a sense of grandeur. The original configuration was shaped like a U, with the structure's opening facing the Field Museum. This allowed for easy access to the field and a direct view of the Field Museum for spectators.

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According to the Chicago History Museum, the stadium was never officially known as Municipal Grant Park Stadium. The name was used in some news articles and promotional materials, but it was never officially adopted by the city or the Chicago Park District (founded on July 1, 1934).

Not originally intended to be a football stadium, the idea was to create a space to host various events, including sports, military drills, concerts, exhibitions, and community gatherings, while also serving as a place of remembrance. The design was inspired by classical architecture, featuring a colonnade facade with Doric columns that encircled the stadium. The seating bowl of the stadium was initially built using a wooden grandstand, which could accommodate around 45,000 spectators.

On November 11, 1925, the stadium was renamed Soldier Field to honor the city's World War I veterans. The name change was officially dedicated on November 27, 1926, during a football game between Army and Navy.

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In 1968, Soldier Field hosted the first Special Olympics. The City of Chicago changed the address of Soldier Field to 1410 Special Olympics Drive on June 24, 2018. This was done to commemorate the 55th anniversary of the Special Olympics and to recognize the stadium's role as the birthplace of the movement.

The stadium became the permanent home of the Chicago Bears of the National Football League (NFL) in 1971.

In 1978, the plank seats were replaced with individual seats. To offer fans a better view, seats were moved closer to the field, increasing the stadium seating capacity to nearly 57,000. 

Throughout the mid-20th century, Soldier Field underwent renovations, including the construction of a grandstand in the open end of the U, the replacement of plank seating with individual seats in 1978, seats were moved closer to the field, a new press box, and the addition of more than 100 skyboxes. This increased spectator capacity to more than 66,000.

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Early  years hosted events included:

• The 1926 Army-Navy Football Game. 
• The second Dempsey-Tunney World Championship boxing match. 
• The University of Notre Dame has played 13 football games at Soldier Field, including. Notre Dame defeated Northwestern 13-6 on November 22. 
• Opening day Century of Progress ceremonies were held in Soldier Field on May 27, 1933. 

Ticket № 3. Opening Day World Fair Ceremonies at Soldier Field.

Major sporting events at Soldier Field include:

• The January 5, 1986, NFL Divisional playoffs and the January 12 Championship games were held at Soldier Field, leading to the Chicago Bears winning Super Bowl XX against New England Patriots, 46 to 10, in the Louisiana Superdome on January 26, 1986.
• Three 1994 FIFA World Cup Games Held at Soldier Field: 
• June 17, 1994: The opening ceremony, emceed by Oprah Winfrey, and the opening game, featuring defending champion Germany.
• June 21, 1994: Germany vs. Spain.
• July 2, 1994: Germany vs. Belgium; Brazil won the 1994 FIFA World Cup.

However, the most controversial chapter in Soldier Field's architectural journey occurred in the early 2000s when the stadium underwent a major renovation. The Chicago Park District, which owns the property, faced substantial criticism when it announced plans to alter the stadium with a design by Benjamin T. Wood and Carlos Zapata of Wood & Zapata in Boston. The stadium grounds were reconfigured by local architecture firm Lohan Associates, led by architect Dirk Lohan, grandson of Mies van der Rohe.

The renovation aimed to modernize Soldier Field while preserving its historic façade. Completed in 2003, the updated Soldier Field retained its classic colonnade while incorporating a bold and contemporary design. Adding a glass and steel structure, known as the "Grand Concourse," brought a jolt of modernity to the stadium, while the two elliptical seating structures on either side of the original colonnades are striking additions to the structure.

While the innovative design allowed for enhanced amenities, increased seating capacity, and improved accessibility for fans, many preservationists, architecture critics and residents were not thrilled about the renovation. The modern additions were seen as incongruous with the stadium's neoclassical origins. "It looks like a spaceship landed." Debates about the design of the stadium continue today.

Despite the controversy, Soldier Field attracts hundreds of thousands of spectators for NFL games, athletic events, concerts and more. As the Chicago Bears look to move their home field to another location, the future of the iconic field by the lake is yet to be determined.

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.